Documents published in 2020 : Scipedia

In-Situ Tests on Silica Aerogel-Based Rendering Walls
I. Flores-Colen, M. Pedroso, A. Soares, M. Gomes, N. Ramos, J. Maia, R. Sousa, H. Sousa, L. Silva

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In this paper, two aerogel-based renders are characterized based on in-situ testing of walls prototypes. The in-situ tests to assess the mechanical performance are: pull-off, surface impact tests and compressive strength on collected samples. The physical performance includes the water resistance and thermal conductivity coefficient. The tests carried out to assess water-resistance are: Karsten tube, moisture meter and capillary water absorption of collected samples. The thermal performance was tested based on infrared thermography and thermal conductivity transient method. The combination of these in-situ tests allowed a better performance characterization of the aerogelbased renders and characterized the applied renders. These results were carried out under two national research projects (Nanorender and P2020 PEP).
Abstract
In this paper, two aerogel-based renders are characterized based on in-situ testing of walls prototypes. The in-situ tests to assess the mechanical performance are: pull-off, [...]
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Out-Of-Plane Displacements Determination Based on the Analysis of Point Clouds from TLS Using the M-Split Estimation
J. Janicka, J. Rapiński, W. Błaszczak-Bąk, C. Suchocki

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Building structures are exposed to the impact of various forces and natural phenomena. Earthquakes, heavy rains, displacements of land surrounding the building can have a significant and negative impact on the elements of buildings or entire construction objects. Terrestrial laser scanning technology can be successfully used to obtain data on changes in the structure of an object. This papier discusses the use of TLS as a measurement method for obtaining information on displacements and deformations that have occurred after heavy downpour. As a result of the rapid rain, the ground displacement occurred, which in effect led to damage to the retaining wall. The terrestrial laser scanning was used to measure the area covered by the displacements and the M-split method to model the obtained data.
Abstract
Building structures are exposed to the impact of various forces and natural phenomena. Earthquakes, heavy rains, displacements of land surrounding the building can have a [...]
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Identification of Defects and Hazards in Structures Based on the Point Cloud Using the OptD Method
W. Blaszczak-Bak, J. Janicka

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Structural changes taking place in buildings and structures due to the passage of time are a normal phenomenon. However, the building objects are also adversely affected by atmospheric conditions or violent natural phenomena. Every year, our surroundings are increasingly attacked by extreme weather phenomena such as: floods, hurricanes, heavy storms with rain or extreme heat. Such phenomena are natural elements of nature, however they significantly interfere in the technical condition of the building. They often cause measurable economic losses: flooding, cracks, construction displacements and even their total destruction. At the time of estimating losses, calculating the costs of repair, and then making decisions about the method of restoration, a helpful tool can be laser scanning: terrestrial, airborne or mobile, depending on the character of the object and the size of the disaster. The paper presents an identification of defects and hazards in structures based on the point cloud using the OptD method.
Abstract
Structural changes taking place in buildings and structures due to the passage of time are a normal phenomenon. However, the building objects are also adversely affected by [...]
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Airborne Algal Growth on the Roofs of Membrane-Structured Residences in a Cold Areas of Japan
M. Nakajima, D. Masueda, S. Hokoi, T. Matsushita

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Discoloration of building facades due to airborne algae is observed in our surroundings. The growth conditions of these algae are not fully clear yet, and efficient preventive measures have not yet been determined. This study was aimed at investigating the influence of ambient environment and building structure on algal growth. A residential building in the cold region of Japan was surveyed. The roof was a multilayered structure consisting of a semi-transparent film, an air layer, an outside insulation layer, and was supported by rafters. The soiled state was visually observed and recorded through pictures, and seemed to be particularly increased in autumn. Several black stripes appeared on the northeast (NE) roof four months after its cleaning. The soiling first appeared on the film backed by the rafter, and then extended to the film backed by the air layer. It rarely appeared on the southeast roof. The roof-surface temperature was measured and a stripe-shaped distribution was observed. The temperature of the film with rafter was higher and lesser than that of the film with the air layer during the night and in the early morning, respectively. Although condensation occurred nightly, its frequency showed no orientational difference. Algae can die when exposed to a temperature higher than 40 °C. The southwest roof had the longest period of a surface temperature over 40 °C, while the northwest (NW) roof had the shortest period of this surface temperature. These measurements corresponded well to the survey results according to which soiling mainly occurred on the NE and NW sides of roofs. The time for algal growth was estimated assuming that algae can grow at surface temperatures between 0 and 40 °C.
Abstract
Discoloration of building facades due to airborne algae is observed in our surroundings. The growth conditions of these algae are not fully clear yet, and efficient preventive [...]
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Mobile Augmented Reality Application Supporting Building Facades Visualization
M. Bednarczyk, T. Templin

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The use of mobile devices such as smartphones still increases over last years. Smartphone hardware capabilities are comparable with average personal computers. Thanks to the increasing computing power, their application is focused on more and more sophisticated and complex tasks. These includes among others augmented reality (AR) applications, which support precise GNSS localization and use signals from such devices like accelerometer or gyrocsope. They are able to create interactive, immersive real-time visualisation of any kind. The article presents a prototype Mobile Augmented Reality (MAR) Application for visualization of the building facades. It allows to support the original look of the building with the additional information from database. Software of this kind, can be used for overviewing, inspecting or work planning carried out on the facade of the building. As a part of the test, a prototype of the MAR application for Android has been prepared. Rest of the solution components have been presented in form of a concept, implementation of which is planned in near future. Basic technical assumptions are already developed, but details may change. The paper mentions also some important AR problems, especially positioning in urban environment and accurate registration of digital objects in the real world.
Abstract
The use of mobile devices such as smartphones still increases over last years. Smartphone hardware capabilities are comparable with average personal computers. Thanks to the [...]
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Permeability of Ultra-Fine Reactive Fly Ash applied to Cement-Based Composites
W. Lin, A. Cheng, W. Yeih, K. Korniejenko, M. Hebda, M. Łach

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This study explores the permeability of the partial replacement of cement using ultra-fine reactive fly ash (URFA) and silica fume. URFA is an industrial by-product from thermal power plants and it has a smaller spherical particle size (0.1 µm to 10 µm) than the general fly ash. The fixed water-to-binder ratio was 0.45 and the replacement of cement was used as 5% and 10%. The combinations of URFA and silica fume in composites were used as 5% URFA plus 5% silica fume and 8% URFA plus 2% silica fume. The results show that the inclusion of URFA was enhanced to increase the workability, and help to produce pozzolanic reaction and C-S-H colloids. The colloids were filling the pore structures to increase the compactness of specimen, which is consistency with the increased the compressive strength and reduction of the dry shrinkage. It also was reduced the chloride ion penetration and non-steady state migration coefficient, which is helpful for improving the mechanical properties and permeability. The composites with 10% URFA had a better performance. For blending specimen, it was also a tendency to improve mechanical properties and permeability; and the combination of 5% URFA and 5% silica fume in composites enhanced better performances.
Abstract
This study explores the permeability of the partial replacement of cement using ultra-fine reactive fly ash (URFA) and silica fume. URFA is an industrial by-product from thermal [...]
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Evaluation of Economic Efficiency of Territory Development
J. Korytárová, V. Hromádka, M. Marek, S. Pelčák, J. Rouzek

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The article deals with the analysis of background resources for the evaluation of socioeconomic impact methodology elaboration of the territory development in the field of commercial, service and residential properties, mixed constructions and multifunctional buildings in the first phase of their life cycle. The research team investigated the possibilities of using the information and procedures for the evaluation of socio-economic impacts of the territory development. Relevant data for the evaluation was identified and analysed on the research sample of 12 major urban districts of the city of Brno. Technical and social parameters that appeared relevant for the economic evaluation of the surveyed location development were identified based on the available data on individual territories. The first identification step was their description. Subsequently, suitable metrics for their evaluation were examined. Findings about what socio-economic impacts these locations create in the field of interest and whether these impacts are efficient in terms of their functioning represent the output of the paper. This includes determining the overall economic efficiency of the implementation phase of their life cycle. This output then forms base for the future research focusing on the possibility of including other variables that shall focus on the operational phase of the life cycle and extend the assessment to a wider timeframe.
Abstract
The article deals with the analysis of background resources for the evaluation of socioeconomic impact methodology elaboration of the territory development in the field of [...]
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A Methodology for Assessment of Building Assembly Air Leakage Moisture Response, Condensation Risk, and Expected Durability When Subjected to Projected Future Climate Loads
D. Kayll, M. Defo, T. Moore, M. Lacasse

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
It was determined that the ability to assess the required performance of an air barrier assembly could now be supported using modern computational hygrothermal simulation techniques coupled with historical and future climate data and the new durability methodology developed as part of the updated 2019 CSA S478 Guideline for Durability of Buildings.
Abstract
It was determined that the ability to assess the required performance of an air barrier assembly could now be supported using modern computational hygrothermal simulation [...]
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A Joint Inversion Approach of Capacitive and Resistive Measurements for the Estimation of Water Saturation Profiles in Concrete Structures
M. Alhajj, G. Villain, S. Bourguignon, S. Lopes

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Concrete is a construction material that is well known for its durability. However, it is exposed to environmental attacks that lead to the penetration of aggressive agents such as water and chlorides, thus, threatening its durability and service life. Within this context and exploiting the sensitivity of the electromagnetic properties of concrete to its water content, the literature suggests determining water saturation profiles using non-destructive techniques. For instance, measuring the electrical resistivity at several points of the surface of the concrete structure can lead to an estimate of the resistivity depth profile. Then, after a calibration step, the water saturation depth profile can be obtained and the durability can be assessed. Similarly, the water depth profile can be assessed by dielectric permittivity measurements. In this paper, we propose a new inversion scheme based on the combination of both resistive and capacitive measurements: resistivity and permittivity measurements are inverted jointly to estimate the water saturation profile in concrete. Numerical experiments with simulated data show that information gathered from the two measurements enriches the inversion process, leading to the determination of more reliable water saturation profiles.
Abstract
Concrete is a construction material that is well known for its durability. However, it is exposed to environmental attacks that lead to the penetration of aggressive agents [...]
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Synthetic Resin Reinforcement of Timber Joints Deteriorated by Termites
Y. Mikako, S. Masamitsu, I. Kei-ichi, K. Chizuru, O. Akiko

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Timber has been widely adopted as a global structural material. However, timber sometimes deteriorates due to various factors such as termite infestation, which may reduce its strength and durability. It is difficult to ascertain the degree of deterioration of timbers by visual inspection because deterioration by termites causes severe damage to the inner parts of the timber. Therefore, the damage is often discovered after the deterioration progresses. The restoration and refurbishment method currently implemented is removing the degraded parts and partially replacing them with new healthy wood. Although it is as desirable to reinforce the original part as it is to restore its strength, especially for historical timber structures, this approach has not yet been put into practical use. This study investigates the possibility of restoring timber deteriorated by termites with little changes in its appearance by using resin filling. Deterioration by termites occurs at the base of the timber. Therefore, the specimen is assumed to be the joint of a foundation and column. First, the deteriorated specimen was filled with epoxy resin, and then, the effectiveness of the filling was confirmed by a nondestructive test method using ultrasonic pulse velocity. Finally, shear strength test was performed for the joint. As a result, ultrasonic velocity significantly increased because of the resin filling. The strength of the specimen filled with epoxy resin was restored and was close to the strength of a healthy one. It was confirmed that this strengthening method with resin filling was useful for improving the structural performance of timber deteriorated by termites with little change in appearance.
Abstract
Timber has been widely adopted as a global structural material. However, timber sometimes deteriorates due to various factors such as termite infestation, which may reduce [...]
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Impact of Portland Cement Content on Alkali Activated Bottom Ash
L. Tambara, M. Cheriaf, J. Rocha

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This study explores the behavior of blended mortars of low reactive bottom ashes (BA) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in an alkaline solution. Mortar mixtures incorporating OPC with different replacement levels (0% to 30% mass) were studied. Isothermal conduction calorimetric analysis was studied and 28-and 60-day mechanical strength values were found. SEM images was used to identifies porosity structures at 28-day. Water absorption was also investigated. The results revealed different behaviors to low (OPC 2.5 and OPC 5) and moderated (OPC 10 and OPC 30) OPC content. Increase in percentage of Portland accelerated hydration kinetics. There is a second peak formation for moderated OPC content, associated with C-A-S-H gel formation. The partial replacement of bottom ash by OPC tend to reduce the absorption. There is a slower initial water absorption to low OPC content. This behavior is due the higher unreacted BA content, that works as a filler. Otherwise, the increase of water absorption for OPC content is due to the coexistence of Portland cement hydrates and alkali activated reactions.
Abstract
This study explores the behavior of blended mortars of low reactive bottom ashes (BA) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in an alkaline solution. Mortar mixtures incorporating [...]
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Building Circular Economy: a Case Study Designed and Built Following a BIM-Based Life Cycle Assessment Approach
M. Manca, Z. Prochazkova, U. Berardi, L. Alfaro, F. Pich-Aguilera

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The awareness of the environmental impact of buildings during their entire whole life cycle has seen a growing interest in recent years. In fact, as buildings become more energy-efficient, life cycle impacts become increasingly important. Investors in the building sector are becoming aware of the direct and indirect benefits of a design process that enables the control of the impact of the building, ensuring the higher quality, intrinsic value of materials under a circular economy point of view. The durability is, together with reusability and recyclability, one of the main characteristics of construction materials. In this framework, the purpose of this paper is to describe a BIM-based approach to life cycle assessment (LCA) from the initial stages of the design of the Socrates Building in Viladecans. For this scope, a digital model in the TCQi GMA software was created to assist in the evaluation, optimization, and comparison of different design and construction alternatives. An integrated project delivery contract was adopted. These aspects altogether showed the potential of increasing the real estate value and the profitability of the building. This paper discusses problems that emerged during the digital project management, assessing criticalities and opportunities.
Abstract
The awareness of the environmental impact of buildings during their entire whole life cycle has seen a growing interest in recent years. In fact, as buildings become more [...]
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Laboratory Vs Field Performance of Innovative Thermal Insulating Plasters
S. Fantucci, E. Fenoglio, V. Serra

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Thermal insulating plasters and renders are becoming a popular solution for the energy retrofit of existing and historic buildings because of their suitability/compatibility with the existing masonry supports. However, as for most of the insulating products, the actual performance of these materials might significantly differ from the one determined with simplified methods (EN ISO 6946 standard) that are commonly adopted by the designers. In this study, an overview of the latest Authors researches that involve three different thermal insulating plasters, containing respectively perlite, vegetal and aerogel aggregates, are presented. The developed plasters were characterized in the laboratory and successively applied in three demonstration buildings. From the in-field thermal monitoring activities, all the analysed thermal insulating plasters showed a decrease in the thermal performance between 25 and 30% if compared to the laboratory measurements.
Abstract
Thermal insulating plasters and renders are becoming a popular solution for the energy retrofit of existing and historic buildings because of their suitability/compatibility [...]
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Selecting Criteria for Assessing "Environmentally-Friendly" Material Options in Construction: Part I
R. Bucoń, A. Czarnigowska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
One of the design team‘s tasks is assuring that their project has a low negative impact on the environment. This comes from regulations as well as expectations of direct benefits (reduction of operating cost, the project‘s improved image in the eyes of the public, etc.). To fulfill this task, one needs to define criteria for assessing the design options. These are to correspond to the individual qualities of the project, and they should be significant and possible to assess. The paper, divided into two parts, presents a review of the literature concerning the criteria for the assessment of design solutions defined as "green" or "environmentally friendly". Part I presents the method of the analysis and investigates into the number and type of criteria adopted in the sample of papers being the object of analysis. Part II focuses on the ways of defining criteria values, weights, and methods of multicriteria assessment.
Abstract
One of the design team‘s tasks is assuring that their project has a low negative impact on the environment. This comes from regulations as well as expectations of direct [...]
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Biomimetic Antifreeze Polymers: A Natural Solution to Freeze-Thaw Damage in Cement and Concrete
M. Matar, S. Frazier, W. Srubar

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Ice is one of the few substances on Earth that expands when it freezes. Consequently, this phase change causes damage to porous cementitious materials that absorb water and undergo freezethaw cycling. Inspired by nature, the objective of this work is to characterize biomimetic antifreeze polymers (BAPs) that explicitly mimic the behavior of antifreeze proteins (AFPs) and antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) naturally found in plants, fish, insects, and bacteria for use as a concrete additive. The ultimate goal of this work is to enhance the freeze-thaw durability of ordinary portland cement (OPC) concrete without the use of traditional air entraining agents (AEAs). This work will highlight recent research that has shown that small additions, less than 0.1% by wt. of cement, of BAPs that exhibit ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity can mitigate freeze-thaw damage in OPC paste and concrete while entraining less than 3% air.
Abstract
Ice is one of the few substances on Earth that expands when it freezes. Consequently, this phase change causes damage to porous cementitious materials that absorb water and [...]
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Integrating Self-Sensing in Self-Healing Concrete: Towards a Biomimetic Approach to Repair
K. Paine, B. Reeksting, H. Taha, S. Gebhard

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Material degradation of our civil infrastructure is inevitable, and regular maintenance is required to mitigate against failure during the service-life. However, understanding and knowledge of composites is now leading to the creation of concretes with autonomic self-healing capabilities. This development will transform our infrastructure by embedding self-immunity and resilience so that structures evolve over their lifespan enhancing durability and serviceability, improving safety and reducing maintenance costs. Research in the UK under the auspices of Resilient Materials for Life (RM4L) has developed a suite of multiple-scale biomimetic self-healing concretes that can adapt and respond to damage without external intervention. This paper discusses the development of bacteria to precipitate calcite in cracks in concrete. Whilst bacteria-based healing is possible through several pathways, it is only now that a better understanding is permitting the optimization of the process. There are two key technologies for including bacteria healing in concrete: (i) encapsulation and (ii) vascular flow networks. Vascular flow networks permit continuous unlimited delivery of healing agents to internal areas of damage, facilitating repair on a reoccurring basis. However, in order to use them effectively human intervention is required to identify cracking and trigger healing processes. A more biomimetic approach is to provide the concrete with a form of self-sensing capability to enable it to initiate crack healing itself. Research using PZT sensors to detect cracking is described.
Abstract
Material degradation of our civil infrastructure is inevitable, and regular maintenance is required to mitigate against failure during the service-life. However, understanding [...]
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Concrete: Limit States and Sustainability
K. Hrabová, B. Teplý, T. Vymazal

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The structural design of concrete structures has to result in qualities ensuring ordinary structural safety and serviceability, together with durability. Recently, it has become necessary to pursue sustainability as well, and rather newly the issue of resilience has also appeared. It is now apparent that the effects of mechanical load, environmental load and even social coherence need to be reflected and included in the formulation of limit states. This is a complex matter involving the factors of time, service life, degradation effects, modelling, probability analyses, limit states, costs and other phenomena. It has not yet been completely understood, albeit several notions in this context are contained in different codes and regulations, e.g. EN 1990, EN 1992, ISO 13823:2008, ISO 16204:2012, fib MC2010 and fib MC2020 (currently under preparation by the fib committees). According to fib Model Code 2010, the design method most commonly used for concrete structures today is performance-based. Sustainable target value design can be briefly expressed as the comparison of sustainable capacity vs. sustainable impacts. This requires the formulation of a new class of limit states – apart from those of the engineering (or structural) type, also sustainability limit states now need to be specified. The presented contribution briefly mentions traditional and durability limit states, discussing their variants and context, and then concentrates specifically on the formulation of limit states for concrete sustainability at material level. It also presents some examples which apply a full probabilistic approach.
Abstract
The structural design of concrete structures has to result in qualities ensuring ordinary structural safety and serviceability, together with durability. Recently, it has [...]
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Impact of Climate Change in Building Envelope Design: The Performance to Withstand Mould Growth
K. Gradeci, A. Nocente, N. Labonnote, P. Rüther

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Mould growth is a biodeterioration phenomenon that jeopardizes the integrity, functionality and durability of building envelopes. The performance to withstand biodeterioration depends on the critical hygrothermal conditions inside the envelope. These conditions are subject to the configuration of building envelopes, and climate exposure, accounting for both the outdoor weather and indoor environments‘ conditions. These critical conditions are likely to intensify in response to the changing climate, and hence, modification and adaptation of the envelopes‘ configuration will be required. An understanding of the implications of envelope configurations‘ choices is required to set up guidelines for forthcoming building envelope design. Parametric analyses are a potent source of insight to investigate how the input parameters influence the desired outcome. In light of this, a parametric analysis is carried out to investigate the performance of three building envelopes to withstand mould growth. The impact of climate change in the performance evaluation is accounted for by employing both historic and future climate change scenarios in which the global climate temperature change is forecast to be 3.5º C. Input parameters related to the simulation of mould growth are also investigated. Recommendations to current building envelope design guidelines are drawn for the performance evaluation to withstand mould growth
Abstract
Mould growth is a biodeterioration phenomenon that jeopardizes the integrity, functionality and durability of building envelopes. The performance to withstand biodeterioration [...]
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An Experimental Study on the Thermal Conductivity of Concrete Containing Coal Bottom Ash Aggregate
I. Yang, J. Park, H. Jung

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Thermal conductivity plays a significant role in efficient energy usage, especially in the construction field. Low thermal conductivity is preferable because lower thermal conductivity will increase the thermal insulation provided by the concrete and reduce the heating and cooling costs for residential and commercial buildings. To accomplish this goal, porous materials can be considered for use in concrete. Additionally, researchers have had challenges producing high-strength concrete with low thermal conductivity. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of replacing crushed fine aggregates with coal bottom ash (CBA) on the thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of high-strength concrete. The concrete properties, including unit weight, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity, were measured. The experimental results revealed that the thermal conductivity of the CBA concrete decreased as the unit weight of the CBA concrete decreased, and the thermal conductivity also decreased as the compressive strength decreased. Finally, the relationships between the thermal conductivity, unit weight, and compressive strength of the CBA concrete were also examined.
Abstract
Thermal conductivity plays a significant role in efficient energy usage, especially in the construction field. Low thermal conductivity is preferable because lower thermal [...]
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Durability Studies on Fiber-Reinforced Siderurgic Concrete
V. Ortega-López, V. Revilla-Cuesta, A. Santamaria, A. Espinosa, J. Fuente-Alonso, J. Chica

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The construction sector is clearly one of the most pollutant at a global level and its consumption of natural resources is also enormous. Over recent years, heightened awareness of this issue within the construction sector has motivated changes within its working practice,seeking to reduce its environmental impacts and to mitigate the effects of climate change. The consumption of natural resources can be reduced in very different areas and special attention has been given to the substitution of Natural Aggregates (NA) in concrete design by replacing those aggregates with various waste coproducts. Siderurgic concrete is the name given to concrete manufactured with siderurgical aggregate from the steel-making industry. In this paper, test results on fiber-reinforced siderurgical concrete are reported. The concrete is manufactured with approximately 50% Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS) aggregate by volume, for use in pavement applications. Steel and polypropylene fibers, amounting to approximately 0.5% by volume of the concrete mass, are also added to the mix. The durability properties of this concrete type are analyzed through freeze/thaw and moist/dry tests. Furthermore, the long-term behavior of the concrete is explained through its internal structure, using Mercury Intrusion Porosity (MIP) and low-vacuum Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analyses. The results add further weight to the feasibility of using EAFS in replacement of NA in fiber-reinforced concrete for pavement construction.
Abstract
The construction sector is clearly one of the most pollutant at a global level and its consumption of natural resources is also enormous. Over recent years, heightened awareness [...]
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Relationships between Outside and Interior Appearance Inspection and Actual Bio-Deterioration of Structural Members in Existing Wood Houses
T. Tsuchimoto, S. Takahashi, H. Sumikura, T. Nakagawa

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The inspection of the used house which is necessary to be evaluated is carried out without removal of the interior or exterior finishing materials. However, where the interior or exterior appearance was degraded, there was not always a bio-deterioration of the wooden structural member in the existing wood houses. Therefore, the interior or exterior appearance of the 103 used wood houses were inspected and the bio-deterioration of all wooden structural members were investigated after removal of the finishing materials. Then, the relationships between the appearance degradation and the actual bio-deterioration of the wooden structural members in the used wood houses were studied. The results were summarized as follows: 1) The bio-deterioration of the wooden structural members were found much on 1st story rather than 2nd story, in the elder building age, in case of short eaves and in case of low foundation. The issues known experience empirically were verified numerically. 2) The tendency of the appearance degradation occurrence were the same as the tendency of the biodeterioration partially, but didn’t match it entirely. 3) About 90 % of the portions whose interior or exterior appearance were degraded didn’t have the bio-deterioration of the wooden structural member. 4) The ratio of the portion with the bio-deterioration of the wooden structural member without appearance degradation were only 1.6 %.
Abstract
The inspection of the used house which is necessary to be evaluated is carried out without removal of the interior or exterior finishing materials. However, where the interior [...]
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Viability of Production and Application of Concrete with Addition of Fibers of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Bottles for Construction
E. Rodrigues

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Concrete is the main material used in the construction industry not only for the ability to produce infinite variety of shapes for precast forms and for its characteristics of high resistance to compression, but primarily for their low manufacturing cost. Nonetheless, the production by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water, using natural raw materials such as stone, sand and water, despite being plentiful, represent the consumption of millions of tons of natural resources. Thus, the continuous search for new solutions is fundamental in order to not only further lower the manufacturing costs of this essential component in construction, but also to seek alternative materials, those of origin in processes of sustainability
Abstract
Concrete is the main material used in the construction industry not only for the ability to produce infinite variety of shapes for precast forms and for its characteristics [...]
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Influence of High Volume Fly Ash and Recycled Aggregates in Chloride and Carbonation Resistance of Concrete
M. Etxeberria, F. Alvarez

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This paper deals with the evaluation of the influence of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and the employment of high volume of fly ash (FA) on the physical, mechanical and durability (chloride ion penetration and carbonation) properties of concretes. The obtained values of which, being compared to those of conventional concretes. Concrete was produced using 0%, 25% and 50% FA in replacement of Portland cement, and 0% and 50% of RCA in substitution of natural aggregates. All the concretes were produced employing an effective water-cement ratio of 0.50. The physical properties at 28 days and the compressive strength at 7, 28 and 90 days were determined in all the concretes produced as well as the assessment of durability (penetration of chlorides and depth of carbonation) on all concrete mixtures. The depth of the carbonation was determined after submitting every concrete sample to a series of accelerated tests at 20% of CO2 concentration during 7, 14 and 28 days after the curing period in the humidity room and pre-condition in the laboratory. The chloride penetration was determined at 28 and 90 days of curing. It was concluded that the employment of 50% of un-carbonated RCA increased the early strength of concrete produced using FA, and at late ages, RCA concretes achieved similar strength when 25% of FA was employed. The concrete produced with 50% of FA achieved the highest resistance to chloride ion penetration also when RCA was employed. Although the use of FA increased the carbonation depth of the concrete samples, the employment of the un-carbonated RCA reduced that effect. The employment of RCA with CEM II or binder with 25% of FA caused the lowest carbonation depth.
Abstract
This paper deals with the evaluation of the influence of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and the employment of high volume of fly ash (FA) on the physical, mechanical and [...]
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Decision Support to Identification of Road Infrastructure Segments With Poor Conditions
N. Jajac

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Planning of maintenance activities (an integral approach) on ever growing system such as urban road infrastructure requires decision makers to take into account large number of different data and usually conflicted criteria, derived from several aspects of analysed problem. This systematic approach to planning is based on the main three steps: identification of alternatives, their validation and selection for inclusion into a maintenance plan. Most of authors are dealing with the last two steps however, focus of this research is on the first step. This step is a critical phase of planning because it is important to identify road infrastructure segments that need to be improved. Meaning, those with poor condition. The condition of a segment must be expressed as simple as possible (by unique Condition Assessment Value) and by usage of few but most relevant criteria (such as level of service, safety, time period passed form the last renovation and stability). Another important issue is provision of relevant, relatively quick and consistent expert assessment of segment condition according to above mentioned criteria and for large number of segment. To insure such assessment with high quality of segments identification this paper propose an decision support concept/expert system based on combination of trained and tested Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method. The concept is validated on urban road infrastructure of city centre of Split, Croatia and it proved to be useful for determining a set of road infrastructure segments where maintenance activities should be undertaken.
Abstract
Planning of maintenance activities (an integral approach) on ever growing system such as urban road infrastructure requires decision makers to take into account large number [...]
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Are Mineral Toppings of Asphalt Roofing Sufficient to Protect Flat Roofs and Roofing Felt Alone?
T. Szkuta, M. Wesołowska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Mineral surfaces are an integral part of bituminous roofing felt. Their task is to protect less resistant elements from the destructive effects of the environment. Since the first application in 1897, they have been constantly improved in the direction of better functionality and aesthetics. It often turns out that the intended effect has not been achieved. During the first years of operation, there are signs of roof damages on most facilities. Due to the complex interaction of roofing elements, several causes of damages can be defined. A group of processes taking place in mineral roofing toppings is important for roofing felt. Mineral surfaces are exposed to physical, chemical and biological factors. They cause losses due to the unavoidable breaking of adhesion to the modified asphalt. Pulling out caused by factors occurring on the roof is a long-term process with more effects on the covering, in particular its durability and tightness. In the paper, the reasons for the release of mineral topping from the SBS modified asphalt layer were defined. The analysis shows that as a result of significant degradation and harmful impact of mineral coverage, this layer may lose the ability to protect the roofing paper, and long-term changes threaten the durability of roofing materials. Solutions have been proposed to significantly reduce the phenomenon caused by specific factors.
Abstract
Mineral surfaces are an integral part of bituminous roofing felt. Their task is to protect less resistant elements from the destructive effects of the environment. Since the [...]
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The Durability of Plant-Based Air Filtering Systems in Buildings: From an Air Quality and Energy Reduction Perspective
A. Aydogan

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
After the oil crisis, all the commercial and residential buildings were designed with tightly sealed envelopes to minimize the air leakage through the building to save energy. Since buildings were no longer able to breathe naturally, indoor air quality problems started to occur. Currently, there is still a dilemma between these two parameters inside the buildings. To address IAQ issues and reduce the energy loads in mechanical conditioning systems, the plant-based air filtering system is designed. The proposed system is a hydroponic system (plants growing without soil) that is composed of a mixed bed of activated carbon adsorbents and porous glass stones that capture and filter the toxins in the air. HVAC‐integrated plant walls that include growth media are designed to support the plants and capturing toxins. These toxins are then metabolized by the plants which can create a self‐regenerating filtration system that requires less outdoor air being fed into the building, thereby reducing the conditioning costs associated with HVAC. This paper is focused on the durability of the design and fabrication of a plant-based air filtering system from an air quality and energy reduction perspective.
Abstract
After the oil crisis, all the commercial and residential buildings were designed with tightly sealed envelopes to minimize the air leakage through the building to save energy. [...]
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Application of Soft Computing Methods to Increase Sustainability in Construction
S. Petruseva, V. Pancovska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In the last three decades the soft computing methods were used by the research community in almost every branch of construction, providing successful and convenient solutions for different problems in civil engineering. This paper presents some of the applications of these methods - especially neural networks (NN) and support vector machine (SVM) - in sustainable construction, i.e. its economic, social and environmental aspects. Soft computing applications were made in the last several years by our research team at the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Skopje, N. Macedonia, in collaboration with other authors from our and other countries. Several predictive models were developed using: general regression neural network (GRNN), support vector machine (SVM) and radial basis function neural network (RBF NN), using predictive modelling software DTREG. Applications of these models cover most of the aspects of sustainability in construction. Models were focused on predicting: road structure construction costs, bidding price in construction, sustainability assessment at early facilities design phase, predicting construction cost and construction time and predicting consumption of energy in buildings. Some of the mentioned developed predictive models are hybrid, composed of process-based and data driven models which contributed very much to the improvement of the accuracy of the predicting. The general conclusion is that the soft computing methods are a useful tool for developing models in the area of all aspects of sustainability and their application can lead to increasing sustainability in construction.
Abstract
In the last three decades the soft computing methods were used by the research community in almost every branch of construction, providing successful and convenient solutions [...]
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Effects of Long-Term UV Exposure on the Performance of Cement Plasters Integrated with Thermochromic Paint and PCMs for Building Facade Applications
S. Soudian, U. Berardi, N. Laschuk

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The exterior finish layer in building facades is exposed to considerable environmental loads, which can reduce the service life of the materials, increasing the need for replacement. New climate challenges impose to look more carefully at the long-term performance and durability of building components and materials. Thermal stresses due to daily temperature fluctuations and UV exposure can significantly damage facades and degrade their performance. This research measures the long-term performance of a responsive cementitious finish plaster. The developed cement plaster is combined with phase change materials (PCMs), and thermochromic (TC) pigments to control solar radiation and surface temperatures dynamically on the exterior façade year around. The main objective of the study is to quantify the effect of long-term UV exposure on the optical performance of the cement plasters. PCMs with three different melting temperatures of 18oC, 24oC, and 28oC were combined with two different colors of blue and red TC paint with a transition temperature of 31oC. Accelerated UV aging of the samples was performed using lab tests to simulate exposure to UV radiation for two years. The solar reflectance of the samples was characterized before and after the accelerated UV aging tests. The results of the aging tests revealed that UV exposure impacts the solar reflectance of the finish material based on the method of integrating the TC paint to the cement plaster. In the case of TC paint applied to the surface, the solar reflectance of the plasters with only the TC is reduced by 15% after aging, while the ones combined with PCMs have a similar solar reflectance value after aging.
Abstract
The exterior finish layer in building facades is exposed to considerable environmental loads, which can reduce the service life of the materials, increasing the need for replacement. [...]
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Rainwater Management of Ventilated Facades: Impact of Joint Width and Cavity Size
S. Linden, N. Bossche

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
During a rain event, most of the raindrops reaching the facade either splash back or run off the exterior surface of the facade. However, it is evident that also a portion of the water infiltrates through the open joints of a ventilated facade. The infiltrated water may either be drained in the cavity to the bottom of the wall or reach the insulation layer. If there are any deficiencies present in the insulation layer or at the connection of the brackets, the infiltrated water might introduce problems. Additionally, if the cavity is not able to drain all the infiltrated water or adhered droplets to one of the cavity surfaces do not dry out, moisture problems might occur. Experiments were conducted to determine the infiltration rate through ventilated facades with open joint widths of 5 mm, 10 mm and 15 mm and cavity widths ranging from 190 mm to 40 mm. It was observed that the amount of infiltrating water was larger for larger joints widths. Due to the larger kinetic energy of the drops flowing through the larger joint widths, the drops were able to reach the exterior surface of the insulation layer, even for large cavity widths. The results from the experimental assessment were used as input parameters for hygrothermal simulations to determine the risk of moisture problems.
Abstract
During a rain event, most of the raindrops reaching the facade either splash back or run off the exterior surface of the facade. However, it is evident that also a portion [...]
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Implication of Microbial Biofilm in the Biodeterioration of Cementitious Materials in the specific context of Anaerobic Digestion Conditions
C. Perez, C. Lors, B. Erable

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy production process based on the fermentation of biodegradable biomass. The industrial digesters are usually made of cementitious materials. However, the microbial production of several aggressive compounds (CO2, NH4 + and volatile fatty acids) during the digestion leads to the deterioration of the concrete structure. The growth of microbial biofilm on the surface of concrete is suspected to generate an even more severe biodeterioration. The goal of this study is to provide a better understanding of the biofilm involvement in the biodeterioration of cementitious materials during an anaerobic digestion process. More precisely, this study is focused on the biofilm heterogeneity and its development on cementitious materials in anaerobic digestion. Lab scale anaerobic bioreactors mimicking industrial anaerobic digestion medium were carried out to immerge CEM I cement pastes in this medium during 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks. The deterioration of cement pastes was evaluated by using a scanning electron microscope to determine the deteriorated thickness and to quantify the volatile fatty acids in the medium. Biofilm attached on the surface of cement pastes was analyzed through molecular biology techniques, such as 16s rRNA gene sequencing analysis and qPCR.To assess the biofilm heterogeneity, successive stalls of the layers of the biofilm were realized using physical biofilm removal techniques. Three microbial fractions are defined: the planktonic microorganisms, the lousy attached and the strongly attached ones. Results showed that the methanogenic Archaea are found mainly in the medium while around half of the microbial population strongly attached is made of acidogenic bacteria. These results suggest that the biofilm could increase the biodétérioration of concrete since the fatty acids are massively produced at the proximity of the surface of the cementitious samples.
Abstract
Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy production process based on the fermentation of biodegradable biomass. The industrial digesters are usually made of cementitious [...]
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Effect of Vapor Diffusion Port on Drying of Wood-Frame Walls
B. Reich, H. Ge, J. Wang

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Vapor diffusion ports (VDP) that are drilled in the exterior sheathing of wood-frame walls are commonly used in wood-frame construction in the coastal region of British Columbia with the intention to improve the drying capacity of wood-frame exterior walls. This practice was originated following the systematic building envelope failures due to rain penetration that occurred in this region around 1985-1995. A previous laboratory study carried out by FPInnovations found that the diffusion ports provided substantial improvement in the drying rates of Oriented Strand Board (OSB) sheathed walls, but not for plywood sheathed walls (Hazleden and Morris, 2001). A more recent laboratory test (Wang, 2018) using wood-frame walls with higher insulation levels in compliance with the current more stringent energy code found that VDPs did not significantly improve the drying rates; On the other hand, the provision of VDPs may allow moisture ingress into the wall assembly instead in a damp environment. The difference in these two studies in terms of test wall sizes, moisture sources, and test conditions may have attributed to the different findings. To provide a more comprehensive and systematic evaluation of the effect of VDPs, hygrothermal simulations using Wufi-2D are carried out in this study. The Wufi-2D model is firstly validated by comparing simulation results to the test results provided by Wang (2018), which tested the effect of VDPs under laboratory conditions by using a wetted wood block installed inside each wall assembly as a simulated moisture source. The simulation results agree well with the measurements. The Model is then used for sensitivity analysis with different levels of rain leakage with and without VDPs using yearly weather data. The variables included are types of exterior insulation, types of sheathing (OSB versus Plywood), and types of sheathing membrane. This paper presents the validation of the model and simulation results under transient conditions with rain leakage. General conclusions on the effect of VDPs are provided
Abstract
Vapor diffusion ports (VDP) that are drilled in the exterior sheathing of wood-frame walls are commonly used in wood-frame construction in the coastal region of British Columbia [...]
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Examination of Optimum Construction Area for Appropriate Thickness in Polyurethane Waterproofing Construction
Y. Hosshin, S. Ishihara, K. Tanaka

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Polyurethane waterproofing membranes are constructed at building sites by applying liquid material to substrate. The membrane thickness is related to the durability of the waterproof material, so quality control during construction is important. However, the membrane thickness is likely to be unstable because it is affected by various factors, such as the environment, substrate conditions, method of waterproofing material application, and construction skills. Therefore, a reduction in thickness variation is extremely important to secure the quality of the waterproofing membrane. To examine which construction conditions can ensure a uniform and appropriate thickness, we examined the combination of allocation method of the suitable construction area and application tools as an example of process control during construction. The construction area width and length were important, and a comparatively uniform and appropriate thickness could be ensured, when construction was carried out over an area with a 1.4-m width and length of 5.15 m by using the trowel and squeegee.
Abstract
Polyurethane waterproofing membranes are constructed at building sites by applying liquid material to substrate. The membrane thickness is related to the durability of the [...]
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Durability of Mortars Packaged with Production Waste of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
M. Nicolella, C. Scognamillo, F. Vitale

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The building sector is responsible for the introduction of about 40% of the waste in the environment (60 Mtons per year in Italy), with serious consequences for our future. Therefore, the statistics of the last few years have induced many researchers and many companies to investigate more sustainable products and technologies. Among these strategies, the re-use of waste materials has been widely encouraged. Many solutions have been proposed in the field of mortars for which the use of waste products such as ceramic materials, polystyrene, clay, concrete, has been tried out. The results have often been encouraging, especially for masonry mortars. Nevertheless, very few attempts have been made to place this type of products on the market. Moreover, the "younger" building materials such as Autoclaved Aerated Concrete have not been fully investigated in their potential use as recycled aggregates. The goal of this research was to evaluate the characteristics of mortars packaged with different percentages of production waste of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete components as aggregates, in order to assess the possible use of these conglomerates as masonry mortars or as plasters. The first campaign included tests for determining mechanical resistance, density, capillary water absorption, adherence to substrate, resistance to carbonation. The tested mortars had satisfactory mechanical characteristics and generally exhibited a good capacity to withstand the actions of atmospheric agents. Finally, the results highlighted the direct connection between Autoclaved Aerated Concrete percentage and mechanical and durability properties.
Abstract
The building sector is responsible for the introduction of about 40% of the waste in the environment (60 Mtons per year in Italy), with serious consequences for our future. [...]
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Preconditioning of Specimens - Drying Influence on Alkali-Activated and Geopolymer Mortar
V. Trincal, V. Benavent, H. Lahalle, G. Samson, C. Patapy, Y. Jainin, M. Cyr

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Alkali-activated materials (AAM) are now seriously considered by the cement industry as an economical alternative to Portland cement, especially for its low CO2 footprint. However, their durability still remain to be assessed in more details. The aim of this study is to focus on the sample preconditioning conditions required for testing, especially the drying stage involved in most of the current tests. Four alkali-activated binders were studied: a geopolymer (Na-silicate activated metakaolin), a Na-carbonate activated slag (GGBS), a Na-silicate activated slag and a Na-silicate activated mixture of 50% metakaolin with 50% GGBS. After an endogenous cure of 28 days at 20°C, mortar specimens were dried at different temperatures (from 20°C to 125°C) until mass stabilization. Drying kinetics and released water contents were evaluated, as well as physical, mechanical and mineralogical analyses at the end of drying. Optimal drying temperature for each alkali-activated binder was determined by coupling mechanical strength measurements and mercury intrusion porosimetry. This study revealed that an inappropriate drying temperature could modify the porosity of some classes of AAM, and reduced the compressive strength by up to 30 to 40%. Antagonistic behaviors were observed in the four alkali-activated materials studied, therefore one should be careful about selecting preconditioning protocols for assessing the properties and the durability of these binders.
Abstract
Alkali-activated materials (AAM) are now seriously considered by the cement industry as an economical alternative to Portland cement, especially for its low CO2 footprint. [...]
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Characteristics of the Changes in the Compressive and Tensile Stress of the Construction Sealant under Cyclic Movement
K. Yamashita, H. Miyauchi, A. Ito, T. Soeta, T. Nakashima

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
A compact fatigue testing machine to quantitatively evaluate the effects of this complex degradation of sealants and the load change of the sealant under dynamic fatigue has been developed. The developed fatigue testing machine is compact with dimensions of (width) 100 × (length) 135 × (height) 110 mm. It can be installed in an outdoor exposure test site or in a chamber. Thus, this machine can be used for performing various compounded accelerated degradation tests. We report the use of this testing machine to examine the effects of this complex degradation of sealants and the load change of the sealant under dynamic fatigue.
Abstract
A compact fatigue testing machine to quantitatively evaluate the effects of this complex degradation of sealants and the load change of the sealant under dynamic fatigue has [...]
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Effect of Coexisting Materials on Secondary Ettringite Formation
K. Sato, T. Saito, T. Saeki

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The expansion of cement paste can occur as a result of secondary ettringite formation due to attack by sulfates. It has been proposed that this expansion is affected by coexisting hydration products such as calcium-silicate-hydrates (C-S-H), although the mechanism has not yet been clarified. The present study experimentally examined the effects of coexisting materials on secondary ettringite formation. Synthesized monosulfate and coexisting materials such as C-S-H were mixed with a sodium sulfate solution. The secondary ettringite proportion was markedly increased by the presence of C-S-H, and calcium-aluminate-silicate-hydrates (C-A-S-H) containing four-coordinate Al were formed in these samples. It is evident that ettringite is likely to form from four-coordinate Al, and that C-S-H promotes secondary ettringite formation because it transitions six-coordinate Al derived from the monosulfate to four-coordinate Al by substituting Al in the Si chains.
Abstract
The expansion of cement paste can occur as a result of secondary ettringite formation due to attack by sulfates. It has been proposed that this expansion is affected by coexisting [...]
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The Palace of Westminster Courtyards Project: Sourcing Stone for Repair and Conservation
E. Laycock, D. Jefferson, S. Hetherington

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The Palace of Westminster, commonly known as the Houses of Parliament, serves as the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords and is situated on the north bank of the River Thames in London, England. The site is part of the UNESCO Westminster World Heritage Site. The building was constructed of magnesian limestone, selected following a nationwide survey of building stones carried out by a Government Select Committee. However, some of this stone began to decay soon after construction in the mid 1800s. As the majority of the stonework has survived very well the aim of the work was to source a demonstrably durable material with characteristics which align with the majority of the existing stonework. Samples were taken from the building for petrographic analysis in order to identify compatible material in quarries, either working or which could be re-opened. Durability of the magnesian limestone was assessed using both accepted tests and novel methodology. Large scale walls were constructed in the laboratory and exposed to accelerated frost weathering with realistic temperature parameters. The logistical problems with sourcing the original building material, the nature of the transport and the masons‘ unfamiliarity with the stone may all have played a part in undermining its durability. When magnesian limestone is properly selected and used correctly, its reputation for being of poor durability is largely unfounded. Suitable sources for replacement stone were located which provided several options for both immediate and long-term sourcing for repair and conservation.
Abstract
The Palace of Westminster, commonly known as the Houses of Parliament, serves as the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords and is situated on the north [...]
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Hydronium Detection in Hardened Concrete
A. Martínez-Ibernón, J. Gandía-Romero, I. Gasch, M. Valcuende

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The monitoring of reinforced concrete structures allows us to detect the presence of aggressive agents into of the concrete matrix, on site and in a real time. These aggressive agents can produce the unexpected failure of the structures, thus discovering their presence is a fundamental aspect in the preservation of people safety and the durability of the structure. On the other hand, helps to reduce the cost of maintenance and repair operations, due to allow us to identify the problems faster, minimizing the intervention to be done. The present research paper was focused in the hydronium detection; the reduction of this species generates hydrogen, the hydrogen produces the embrittlement and cracking of the steel, which seriously compromises the right behaviour of the structure. The problem of hydrogen appears in industries such as ammonia processing or petrochemistry industries and nuclear power plants. All of them are industries in which a failure seriously compromises the welfare of people and the environment. Therefore, the detection of hydrogen penetration in reinforcement concrete structures in these cases are very interesting. In this study, with the purpose to detect the hydronium or hydrogen in the hardened concrete matrices is proposed the use of voltammetric sensor, which is part of a multisensory system called Electronic-Tongue. This is a preliminary study. The objective of these initial steps was to evaluate the detection capability of the sensor. Currently, have been designing a sequential test in order to evaluate the sensor in different partial hydrogen pressures with the purpose to develop mathematical models to the hydronium or hydrogen detection and quantification in hardened concrete matrix.
Abstract
The monitoring of reinforced concrete structures allows us to detect the presence of aggressive agents into of the concrete matrix, on site and in a real time. These aggressive [...]
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Neural Model of Projecting Compressive Strength of Cement Concrete Intended for Airfield Pavements
M. Linek

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This work present to the mathematical model in the form of ANN, intended for projecting concrete compressive strength. Input data was classified according to the type of component material and its content in concrete mix (cement contents, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water and admixtures). In order to determine mathematical model, a multilayer, one-way perceptron network was used, recursion network with sigmoidal neurons. The model assumes that neurons are gathered in some layers (one input layer, hidden layers and one output layer). The conducted cross-section of the influence of variables parameters values (learning constant - α and momentum values - η) on the accuracy of representation of compressive strength was analyses. Assessment criterion was assumed taking into consideration the lowest mistake level and 100% compliance. According to the obtained analysis results ANN was assumed the best representing network for constant value of momentum 0,3, learning constant of 0,05 and 6 neurons in a hidden layer. Very good coincidence of component models with experiment results was achieved. At testing stage, the coincidence was achieved at the level of 99.74%, in case of the assumed network structure. During model verification by means of experimental results, the average coincidence was 99.83%.
Abstract
This work present to the mathematical model in the form of ANN, intended for projecting concrete compressive strength. Input data was classified according to the type of component [...]
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Selecting Criteria for Assessing “Environmentally-Friendly” Material Options in Construction: Part II
R. Bucoń, A. Czarnigowska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
One of the design team’s tasks is assuring that their project has a low negative impact on the environment. This comes from regulations as well as expectations of direct benefits (reduction of operating cost, the project’s improved image in the eyes of the public, etc.). To fulfill this task, one needs to define criteria for assessing the design options. These are to correspond to the individual qualities of the project, and they should be significant and possible to assess. The paper, divided into two parts, presents a review of the literature concerning the criteria for the assessment of design solutions defined as "green" or “environmentally friendly”. Part I presented the method of the analysis and investigates into the number and type of criteria adopted in the sample of papers being the object of analysis. This part focuses on the ways of defining criteria values, weights, and methods of multicriteria assessment.
Abstract
One of the design team’s tasks is assuring that their project has a low negative impact on the environment. This comes from regulations as well as expectations of direct [...]
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Fundamental Properties and Durability of Concrete with Gasification Molten Slag as Fine Aggregate
T. Watanabe, H. Fujiwara, M. Maruoka, K. Satori

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The proportion of electricity generated by coal-fired thermal power plants has been rising in Japan as a result of the nuclear plant accident caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. Coal-fired electricity generation has a large environment impact, so the commercial application of integrated coal gasification combined cycle (IGCC) has been promoted. IGCC is an efficient generating method combining a steam turbine and a gas turbine. However, IGCC plants generate coal gasification molten slag (CGMS) and it is necessary to establish effective utilization methods for this slag for further promotion of IGCC technology. In this paper, the fresh properties, hardened properties and durability of concrete containing CGMS as fine aggregate are investigated. The results show that, in comparison with concrete using conventional fine aggregate, the air content introduced by an air-entraining agent is lower and bleeding is increased when CGMS is used as a fine aggregate. As for the hardened properties, compressive strength is slightly lower, while freeze-thaw resistance is significantly reduced. In additional tests, it is found possible to improve freeze-thaw resistance by increasing the air content
Abstract
The proportion of electricity generated by coal-fired thermal power plants has been rising in Japan as a result of the nuclear plant accident caused by the Great East Japan [...]
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Influence of Grid Presence in the Characteristics of Applied Mortars
I. Torres, I. Colen, D. Silveira, R. Pinto

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The most commonly used wall coverings are still, undoubtedly, plasters and renders, whether lime-based or cement-based, whether traditional and prepared in-situ or pre-dosed. In accordance with the available standards, the characterization of these mortars is made on laboratory test specimens, with dimensions, curing conditions and test procedures according to the prescribed. However, when applying these mortars to the real substrates, their behaviour will not be the same. After application of the mortar to the substrate, an interface will be formed, and the interactions that occur after the contact of the mortar, still in the plastic state, with the substrate will change over time due to the hydration kinetics and absorption of the substrate. It is very important to know the real behaviour of mortars after application, in order to ensure their durability. A research project is being developed to analyse the proper behaviour of mortars after application to the substrates. In order to characterize a mortar after application to a substrate, it is necessary to detach it. The introduction of a fiberglass grid in the mortarsubstrate interface makes the detachment easier. The purpose of this study is to determine if the placement of this grid will influence the characteristics of the applied mortar. For this, an experimental campaign was carried out, comparing the characteristics of two mortar formulations, applied to different types of substrate (without introduction of the fiberglass grid), with the characteristics of these mortars applied to the same substrates, but with the introduction of a fiberglass grid at the interface mortar-substrate. In this paper, we present the results obtained for some of the physical and mechanical characteristics of cement and hydraulic lime mortars.
Abstract
The most commonly used wall coverings are still, undoubtedly, plasters and renders, whether lime-based or cement-based, whether traditional and prepared in-situ or pre-dosed. [...]
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Verification of Building Constructions Surroundings Based on Airborne Laser Scanning Data
M. Michałowska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Light Detection and Ranging, as an active Remote Sensing Technology, enables gathering accurate, three-dimensional point cloud of scanned objects. Laser scanning might be provided on the terrestrial level for specific, defined constructions, as well as on the airborne level for aerial or linear objects. Using a laser sensor mounted on a moving platform is currently the most efficient way of obtaining in a short period, accurate positions of billions of points as a representation of a scanned area. Based on this kind of dataset it is possible to perform three-dimensional analysis of the safety of scanned objects without additional measurements in the field. This article presents the analysis performed in vMatic software on data from Airborne Laser Scanning for medium voltage power line verification of obstacles with the buildings. The analysis took less than 20 seconds for the detection of buildings points that are closer than 5m from conductors for seven spans wit a total length of almost 400m. Providing distance verification on 3D point cloud data is the fastest way to obtain a hazard awareness in a short time. Once acquired by LiDAR data can be used for other various analyses for any construction, depending on current, expected and future needs.
Abstract
Light Detection and Ranging, as an active Remote Sensing Technology, enables gathering accurate, three-dimensional point cloud of scanned objects. Laser scanning might be [...]
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Morphology Changes and Fillers migration in Urethane Composites during Thermal Degradation.
A. Tanifuji, T. Ishida, R. Kitagaki

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Polyurethane composite coatings are frequently applied to strengthen the barrier properties of various construction materials such as wood, metal and concrete. The changes of color and glossiness of the composite coatings for building materials proceeds more slowly than that of polyurethane because of containing fillers and several types of additives. However, the most critical barrier properties have not been studied directly based on the difference from the degradation mechanism of polyurethane coatings. Additionally, the difference in thermal and UV degradation mechanisms of coatings is not clear in the existing studies dealing with conventional accelerated weathering tests and outdoor exposure tests. Therefore, the behavior of the filler contained in the coatings was observed using an oven to accelerate thermal degradation. The chemical analysis of the coating surface by XPS and the analysis of the images and elemental mappings by SEM-EDS were carried out, and the mechanism of degradation progress was investigated. In addition, the temperature dependency of the degradation was studied in changing the heating temperature. It was suggested that polymer and fillers interact in promoting mass transfer at the same time as the thermal degradation reaction consequently.
Abstract
Polyurethane composite coatings are frequently applied to strengthen the barrier properties of various construction materials such as wood, metal and concrete. The changes [...]
- 3
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Measurement of Moisture Content and Volume Change Distribution Inside Cement Paste Specimens Using X-Ray CT Imaging
T. Fumoto, M. Abuku, S. Hall

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to clarify the internal change of concrete structures during drying. Therefore, we used X-ray CT to investigate water content and volume changes inside cement paste specimens during drying. Changes in the CT image intensities and measurements on the images indicated water content and volume changes, including local changes detected with digital volume correlation. Next steps will be to understand the link between volume changes and the local water content.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to clarify the internal change of concrete structures during drying. Therefore, we used X-ray CT to investigate water content and volume changes [...]
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Assessment of Moisture Performance of National Building Code Canada Compliant Wall Assemblies under Climate Change
M. Junginger, M. Defo, T. Moore, M. Lacasse, V. John

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Due to climate change, higher temperatures and rainfalls are expected to happen in some areas of Canada, which might increase the climate loads on buildings and lead to premature degradation of moisture-sensitive materials in wall assemblies. To investigate potential durability issues in three cities across Canada (Ottawa, Vancouver and Calgary), code-compliant wood-frame walls with two types of claddings, stucco and brick, were simulated using Delphin 5.9. Two different climate data sets, historical and future when a global warming of 3.5ºC is expected to be reached were used. The hygrothermal performance in terms of mold growth risk was analysed with respect to cladding types, considering air leakage. All the three cities are similarly warmer in the future. However, wind-driven rain (WDR) is higher in Vancouver than in Ottawa and Calgary. With brick cladding the relative humidity is kept below the threshold for mould development only in Ottawa and Calgary. With stucco in future, while Ottawa shows greater mould indices than historical, Calgary shows opposite behavior. The results suggest that the risk of mould growth due to air leakage may decrease in the future.
Abstract
Due to climate change, higher temperatures and rainfalls are expected to happen in some areas of Canada, which might increase the climate loads on buildings and lead to premature [...]
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Validation of Three Methods of Selecting Moisture Reference Years for Hygrothermal Simulations
C. Aggarwal, M. Defo, T. Moore, M. Lacasse, S. Sahyoun, H. Ge

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Hygrothermal simulations are necessary to permit analyzing moisture performance when designing building envelopes. Owing to the high computing time and cost of the long term simulations, a common approach is to select representative year(s), the Moisture Reference Year(s), from a longterm series of climate data. It is assumed that the use of Moisture Reference Year(s) (MRYs) provides equivalent results as those provided using long-term series. The selection of MRY(s) is by itself based on the one of the methods available in the literature. In the present study, three methods of selecting the MRYs were evaluated i.e. the moisture index (MI), severity index (Isev) and climatic index (CI). Simulations were performed using individual years of historical climate data extending from 1986 to 2016 and projected future climate data representing the scenario with a 3.5°C increase in average temperature which is expected to occur from 2062 to 2092. Brick cladding installed on a wood frame wall assembly subjected to the climate of three different Canadian cities was selected for analysis. The cities selected were Vancouver (BC), Calgary (AB) and Ottawa (ON). These cities have differing levels of moisture loads. The year having the mould index value more than 3 for highest number of hours among the individual years was compared with the MRY given by three selected methods. A method was considered to be accurate in terms of the prediction if the year selected by that method gives the number of hours with mould index more than 3 which lies in the same class as that of year having maximum corresponding value. In general, it was observed that none of the methods provides the worst year with 100% accuracy, however for most of the cases, Isev method performs better than other two methods in terms of MRY selection.
Abstract
Hygrothermal simulations are necessary to permit analyzing moisture performance when designing building envelopes. Owing to the high computing time and cost of the long term [...]
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Study on a Proper Repair Cycle of Finishing Materials in Condominiums
T. Ide, H. Hamasaki, Y. Soga

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In this paper, we discussed the concept for appropriate repair period for finishing materials of reinforced concrete structures. We investigated the actual building repair cycle, the progress of carbonation of concrete, and the adhesion strength of various finishing coating. In addition, we carried out 10-years exposure test of concrete with various finishing to evaluate the progress of carbonation and the degree of deterioration of the finish coating material. From these results, we showed the possibility of extending beyond the current repair cycle.
Abstract
In this paper, we discussed the concept for appropriate repair period for finishing materials of reinforced concrete structures. We investigated the actual building repair [...]
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Performance and Durability of Adhesive Tapes for Building Applications. From Product Documentation to Scientific Knowledge (and Back Again)
M. Sletnes, S. Frank

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Adhesive tapes are used extensively in both new buildings and renovation projects in order to achieve airtight building envelopes and energy efficient buildings. It is important to be able to reliably predict whether these adhesive solutions are durable. In our roles as both a research institute and a national approval body for building materials, SINTEF have been performing product evaluations and testing of adhesive tapes for 10 years. During this time, we have tested the durability of more than 30 different tapes on a variety of substrates commonly used in the building industry. After systemising and analysing this data, we have gained valuable insight into the factors governing the durability of adhesive tapes for the construction market. In this paper we share our findings and discuss how we intend to utilise the new knowledge in the design of further scientific experiments in the field.
Abstract
Adhesive tapes are used extensively in both new buildings and renovation projects in order to achieve airtight building envelopes and energy efficient buildings. It is important [...]
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Seismic Performance of RC Moment Frame Structures Made with EAF Slag Aggregates
F. Faleschini, M. Zanini, K. Toska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Sustainability in the construction industry is becoming everyday more a major issue in todays world. To accomplish sustainability goals, adopted also by the Agenda 2030 of the United Nations, wide research has been carried out in the past years. Among this, the use of recycled aggregates has been proven to be promising both in terms of sustainability and material properties. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) concrete has demonstrated a significant increase in mechanical properties when compared to natural aggregates (NA) ones. However, the mechanical properties enhancement is accompanied by an increase of its specific weight and the overall effects of its use in RC structures subjected to dynamic loads, has not been investigated yet. The present study aims to investigate the seismic reliability of reinforced concrete frame buildings made with EAF in comparison to the same structural configurations made with NA concrete, considering three different configurations (3-, 6- and 9- story building type) designed considering ordinary concretes made with natural aggregates.
Abstract
Sustainability in the construction industry is becoming everyday more a major issue in todays world. To accomplish sustainability goals, adopted also by the Agenda 2030 of [...]
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Effects of Finishing Materials against Carbonation and Corrosion Condition of Model Building Exposed to Outdoor Conditions for 30 Years
K. Matsuzawa, O. Senbu, K. Imamoto, C. Kiyohara, K. Etchuya, K. Nemoto

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
A model building made out of concrete block specimens whose surfaces were coated with various finishing materials was constructed for the outdoor exposure test. After 30 years of outdoor exposure, the deterioration of finishes and their carbonation and corrosion inhibition effects were investigated. As a result, the following conclusions were obtained: Though the deterioration levels differed depending on their types and thickness, all finishing materials showed some kind of deterioration after 30 years‘ long-term outdoor exposure. The progress of carbonation and corrosion are prevented when the surface is coated with finishing materials of sufficient thickness or waterproof effect. Regarding the relationship between corrosion depth and carbonation depth, corrosion is initiated after the carbonation front reaches the area. It usually takes a while to initiate corrosion in the carbonated area, not immediately after the carbonation reaction. When the concrete surface is properly coated with finishing material, corrosion may not be initiated in non-carbonated area in concrete where the pH level is not lowered.
Abstract
A model building made out of concrete block specimens whose surfaces were coated with various finishing materials was constructed for the outdoor exposure test. After 30 years [...]
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Performance Based Specification of Wood – Project CLICKdesign
E. Suttie, C. Brischke, E. Hansson, S. Fortino, J. Sandak, M. Kutnik, G. Alfredsen, C. Lucas, E. Vieillemard

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This paper introduces the ForestValue research project CLICKdesign – delivering fingertip knowledge to enable service life performance specification of wood. The consortium is working on a primary innovation to move from the complex, fragmented and general to the easy-to-use, consolidated and specific by provision of a digital tool for specifiers. Other materials tackle this and provide designers and architects with software. The specification of performance of wood products is complex and fraught with inconsistency and requires use of multiple platforms for data, experience, standards and national recommendations. CLICKdesign will provide a tool that has within it the decades of research, the complexity of the standards specification systems and the variation of approach due to tradition, materials and culture across Europe and beyond. A simple tool for nonexpert public users will be available as well as a tool accessible to professional users that will be refined with industry to ensure relevancy and accelerate uptake and use.
Abstract
This paper introduces the ForestValue research project CLICKdesign – delivering fingertip knowledge to enable service life performance specification of wood. The consortium [...]
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Effect of the Type of Concrete with Mineral Additions on the Reinforcement Corrosion Induced by Chlorides - Analysis in the Same Mechanical Strength Class
A. Oliveira, O. Cascudo, A. Castro

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The environment in which the concrete structure is inserted has a great influence on its durability and its service life. Thus, the present work aims to study of the performance of 5 types of concretes of same compressive strength (35 MPa at the age of 28 days) and considers kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of the corrosion induced by chlorides. The 5 types of concretes studied were produced with the use of mineral additions in partial replacement on cement mass (10% of silica fume, 30% of fly ash and 20% of metakaolin), besides the control situation (without mineral addition). The water-to-cementitious materials ratio was different for the concretes ranging from 0.30 to 0.55. Specifically, for the concrete with fly ash, two water/binder ratios were studied (0.30 and 0.40) with the goal of verifying if there are or not significant differences on properties of corrosion with little change of water quantity in the mix. The chloride attack consisted by 308 days (44 weekly cycles) in immersion in aggressive solution rich in chlorides and subsequent drying in a laboratory environment. During this period, the corrosion potentials (Ecorr) and corrosion rate (icorr) from polarization resistance (Rp) of steel bars were monitored. As a general result, it was possible to compare the performance of concretes at the same class of compressive strength to denote which systems have the longest durability in view of attack by chloride. The results have shown that the concretes produced with mineral additions did not show steel bar corrosion, thus configuring major service life for them. Control concrete presented depassivation of reinforcing steel, Ecorr more electronegative and higher icorr over time.
Abstract
The environment in which the concrete structure is inserted has a great influence on its durability and its service life. Thus, the present work aims to study of the performance [...]
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Implementing a Framework for Qualitative Assessment of New Technical Solutions: A Case Study on CLT
C. Tengberg, C. Hagentoft

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
New technical solutions are introduced at a fast pace in the Swedish construction industry, mainly driven by issues concerning costs and productivity. These new technical solutions can comprise new materials, new goods, new designs but also new processes. The record of accomplishment when introducing new technical solutions in the industry is not unproblematic and serial failures of different new technical solution have occurred. In an earlier interview study exploring introduction of new technical solutions in the Swedish construction industry, a common lack of thorough methods for evaluation of new solutions was identified. To address this issue, a case study was performed, exploring a method of evaluation with respect to building physics while implementing a cross laminated timber frame in a multifamily building. The case study uses a framework of assessment with focus on building physics. This paper presents the findings from the case study focusing on how evaluation of a new technical solution with respect to building physics is performed, together with an evaluation of the method, using the experiences of the participants in the case study.
Abstract
New technical solutions are introduced at a fast pace in the Swedish construction industry, mainly driven by issues concerning costs and productivity. These new technical [...]
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Assessment of Reasons behind and Level of Destruction of Aquatic Supports in a Hydraulic Ash Removal Bridge
T. Błaszczyńsk, A. Łowińska-Kluge

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The presented article describes a case of damage to concrete in the aquatic supports of a hydraulic ash removal bridge in a power plant. Carrying out an assessment of the causes of concrete damage, as well as determining the possibility of the occurrence of corrosive phenomena within it, and thus, consequently, predicting the durability of the building structure and selecting, on its basis, a proper repair-renovation procedure, required a series of essential studies and analyses to be carried out. Therefore, in the analyzed case, a complex study was carried out on the structure as well as tests on samples of concrete cut out, in the form of core drillings, from the damaged structure (among others: macroscopic, microscopic SEM, XRD, DTA, chemical analyses). Based on these studies, the types of corrosion responsible for the analyzed damage were determined.
Abstract
The presented article describes a case of damage to concrete in the aquatic supports of a hydraulic ash removal bridge in a power plant. Carrying out an assessment of the [...]
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Possibilities of Reducing Energy Costs in the Life Cycle of Office Buildings
E. Plebankiewicz, K. Zima, D. Wieczorek

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Buildings absorb energy at every stage of the life cycle. The paper analyses the phases of the life cycle of an office building indicating the possibilities of reducing energy consumption. In particular, attention was paid to the most energy-intensive phase, that is the use phase. Both simple actions and more advanced solutions allowing to reduce the energy demand of a building during the use phase are characterized. For an exemplary office building, life cycle costs were calculated taking into account selected solutions improving energy efficiency.
Abstract
Buildings absorb energy at every stage of the life cycle. The paper analyses the phases of the life cycle of an office building indicating the possibilities of reducing energy [...]
- 3
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A Probabilistic Model for the Evolution of Porous Structure Caused by Solid-Phase Precipitation/Dissolution within Building Materials
X. Xiang, M. Fekri

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Saline intrusion is a critical issue in building material because of the severe damages caused by the salt precipitation/dissolution process, especially for the porous material, which has good connectivity. When porous material is exposed to aggressive ambient, the pore structure, not only porosity but also pore size distribution, will be altered by salt precipitation/dissolution. As one of the most significant characteristics in the porous material, pore size distribution is always paid much attention in many literatures. However, a quantitative and practical determination method is still absent. This work aims to establish a probabilistic model to investigate the pore size distribution induced by solid-phase precipitation/dissolution. First, a lognormal distribution is proposed for the simulation of initial pore size distribution tested by the MIP method. Then we develop a probabilistic-based porous network to represent the evolution of microstructure due to precipitation/dissolution. To this end, two different transformation models are constructed to interpret the relation between initial pore radius and modified pore radius before and after precipitation/dissolution. With this probabilistic-based porous network, we could illustrate the precipitated profiles that evolve near the capillary interface during the salt precipitation/dissolution process for a given porosity and water saturation degree. Such a method could be used to interpret the mechanism of the local precipitation/dissolution process in pore scales, which cannot be implemented by experimental measurements.
Abstract
Saline intrusion is a critical issue in building material because of the severe damages caused by the salt precipitation/dissolution process, especially for the porous material, [...]
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Effect of Selected Moisture Reference Year on the Durability Assessment of Wall Assemblies under Future Climates
S. Sahyoun, H. Ge, C. Aggarwal, M. Defo, T. Moore

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Hygrothermal simulations are commonly used to evaluate the moisture damage risk of building envelopes over the long-term. For such assessment to be accurate, a proper selection of representative climate data is required. A common method is the selection of a moisture reference year from a set of available long-term climate data. For instance, the IRC-led research consortium MEWS (Moisture Management of Exterior Wall Systems) developped the Moisture Index (MI) approach, which consists of a wetting and a drying function. Therefore, the reference year selection would be based on the MI ranking. ASHRAE 160 is adopting a procedure named “the severity index” for the selection of moisture reference year. Combining climate loads and durability criteria, this method allows to select more “severe” weather years, thus providing a more representative ranking of the weather data. The objective of this paper is two-fold. First, to compare the selection of the moisture reference year based on two different approaches for both historical and future climate loads. Second, the effect of chosen representative years is evaluated and compared to long-term simulation periods (of 31-years) based on the durability of building assemblies. The methodology includes hygrothermal simulations of two different types of wall assemblies located in three different Canadian cities under a changing climate. In general, higher mold index values were obtained by the long-term simulation and MRYs using Isev. Comparing the results of different models under future climates, the three methods were in good agreement, except for a brick wall facing WDR in Ottawa and Vancouver. This might be due to the Isev correlations were developed based on a north-facing stucco wall. In addition, for a north-facing wall, an extremely low mold index was predicted for Vancouver, compared to WDR direction. Thus, considering a north-facing wall as a criterion for performance evaluation might misrepresent the reality in some locations. Hence, both WDR and North orientations should be considered. A further study will be carried out to investigate the performance evaluation of Isev method for different types of wall systems and orientations.
Abstract
Hygrothermal simulations are commonly used to evaluate the moisture damage risk of building envelopes over the long-term. For such assessment to be accurate, a proper selection [...]
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Modernization of Housing Estates Towards Sustainable Development: What do Housing Estate Managers Provide, What do the Users See?
A. Ostańska

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Modernizing multi-family residential estates in operation for about 40 years is a multifaceted and complex process. In Poland, these assets cannot be considered "degraded" yet, they are not an obvious object of deep retrofit actions. The literature on the subject and the author’s own research confirm that the management of Polish housing estates is carried out with the focus on current repairs and improving energy efficiency by insulating the buildings’ envelopes. Poland lacks long-term programs to implement retrofitting actions based on the analysis of both social and technical needs and aimed at improving the estate’s sustainability parameters. The author puts forward an original approach to the programming of sustainable housing stock retrofit based on the PEARS model (PeopleEnvironment-Actions-Resources-Sociology). The paper focuses on the social research part of the model and presents the case-based analysis – the results of the recurring survey conducted to provide input for sustainable planning of the estate improvements. The paper is a summary of over ten years of research and studies on practices of maintenance of infrastructure and buildings, changing user needs, and user opinions on the possible directions towards sustainable housing.
Abstract
Modernizing multi-family residential estates in operation for about 40 years is a multifaceted and complex process. In Poland, these assets cannot be considered "degraded" [...]
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Analysis of Steel Bars in Corrosion Process after 70 Years of Natural Aging.
F. Schmoeller, M. Lima, S. Silva

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Reinforced concrete structures are commonly used in civil engineering. However, the number of deteriorations in these structures is increasing, especially problems related to steel corrosion. Also, according studies, corrosion is responsible for about 3.5 % of annual GDP with recovery costs in world. Thus, this study analyzed the corrosion of steel bars at 70-year-old, which are in corrosion process by natural aging. Tests were performed to analyze the bars microstructure, using SEM and EDS, as well as analysis of the current mechanical characteristics, with tensile test. Through SEM, it was possible to measure the layer of the corrosion products formed at the samples edge, and to observe the fragility of this region, with the presence of several microcracks. EDS test contributed to verify the oxygen difference from the nucleus until to the specimen edge. It was possible to notice that in the edge, presence of oxygen is much greater. In the mechanical tests, by the tensile test, the samples do not reach the minimum elongation and the limit of resistance prescribed in the standard. Thus, it is believed after 70 years of natural aging, the samples are in advanced process of corrosion, with edges worn out, and no comply with the minimum mechanical requirements.
Abstract
Reinforced concrete structures are commonly used in civil engineering. However, the number of deteriorations in these structures is increasing, especially problems related [...]
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Experiences from Interior Super Insulation of a Brick Wall from the 1800s
P. Johansson, P. Wahlgren

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Many brick buildings in Sweden today face a large need for renovation measures to prolong their service life and make other uses possible. Conventional thermal insulation materials, such as fibre glass and EPS, demand a thick layer of insulation to reach the energy targets. Super insulation materials, such as vacuum insulation panels (VIP) and aerogel blankets (AB), are thermal insulation components with a 3-10 times higher thermal resistance than conventional insulation materials. In this study, the effect of interior insulation using super insulation materials is investigated, using experiences from a case study in a brick wall from the 1800s. Earlier research has shown that interior insulation decreases the drying-out capacity of an exterior wall and increases the risk for freeze-thaw damages in brick walls. The case study building is an industrial building from 1896 with 470 mm homogeneous brick masonry walls insulated with both aerogel insulation and with vacuum insulation panels. Six heat flux sensors were installed in the wall and used to evaluate the thermal resistance of the wall with and without insulation. The initial measurements showed that the rate of water flow in the bricks is approximately three times higher than that in modern bricks. The average calculated U-value was reduced by 70% for the AB and 81% for the VIP layers, while measurements at the three occasions gave a reduction of 72-83% for the AB and 72-84% for the VIP layers, i.e. in the same order of magnitude.
Abstract
Many brick buildings in Sweden today face a large need for renovation measures to prolong their service life and make other uses possible. Conventional thermal insulation [...]
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Various Factors of Water Entry and Penetration Through Water Proofing Layer in Wooden Wall Assembly
H. Saito, M. Miyamura

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Rainwater entry and penetration through a waterproofing layer, such as external finishing and sheathing membrane, should be avoided to prevent moisture damage to a wooden wall assembly. However, housing warranty insurance organizations in Japan have reported that deterioration in some wall assemblies was caused by rain penetration, and severely damaged walls were detected in airtight and insulated building envelopes. This paper presents various factors of water entry and penetration of the waterproofing layers in wooden wall assemblies in terms of practical situations, as a part of a research project to reveal the risk of water and moisture accumulation in collaboration with government and industries in Japan. Several experimental works using mock-up specimens replicating a part of the wall assembly were carried out. As for external finishing, the water intrusion was observed not only at the joints but also at the bottom of vented cavities. Although these minor defects must be prevented by proper design and site work, it is difficult to avoid them completely through the construction process and period of use. Indeed, the extent of water entry was affected by various factors such as wall configuration, exposure conditions and so on. Experimental results suggested that various factors, including detail of interface and quality of materials, should be considered to assess service life prediction by hygrothermal analysis.
Abstract
Rainwater entry and penetration through a waterproofing layer, such as external finishing and sheathing membrane, should be avoided to prevent moisture damage to a wooden [...]
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Biodegradable Polymers on Cementitious Materials
J. García-González, P. Lemos, A. Pereira, J. Pozo, M. Guerra-Romero, A. Juan-Valdés, P. Faria

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Nowadays the sustainability and safety requirements of structures inspire the study of new self-healing materials and preventive repair methods on cementitious elements. To achieve this undertaking, this research replaces widely employed synthetic polymers by biodegradable ones as consolidants and water-repellents, and assesses the protection and consolidation effect of biopolymers (obtained by using waste biomass of mixed microbial cultures from polyhydroxyalkanoates production processes) as eco-friendly healing agents by analysing the water absorption of two kind of materials. The first group of samples are cement mortar specimens whose external surface has been treated with biopolymer products and subsequently evaluated by water drop absorption test. The second group of samples are cement mortar specimens formulated with biopolymer products included in its mixing water and later the waterproofing efficiency is analysed by capillary water absorption tests. The water absorption behaviour of both kind of samples shows a potential improvement of cementitious elements durability, since water absorption results have decreased for treated samples in comparison with untreated ones.
Abstract
Nowadays the sustainability and safety requirements of structures inspire the study of new self-healing materials and preventive repair methods on cementitious elements. To [...]
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Two-Part Bio-Based Self-Healing Repair Agent for Cement-Based Mortar
M. Tezer, Z. Bundur

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Factors affecting durability of concrete structures are generally associated with each other. Due to its brittle nature, concrete can crack under stress and these cracks are one of the main reasons for a decrease in service life in concrete structures. Therefore, it is crucial to detect and recover microcracks, then to repair them as they were developed to wider cracks. Recent research in the field of concrete materials suggested that it might be possible to develop a smart cement-based material that is capable of remediate cracks by triggering biogenic calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitaton. This paper summarizes a study undertaken to investigate the self-healing efficiency of Sporosarcina pasteurii (S. pasteurii) cells immobilized on both diatomaceous earth and pumice, to remediate flexural cracks on mortar in early ages (28 days after mixing). To obtain a two-phase bio additive, half of the minerals were saturated with a nutrient medium consisting of urea, corn-steep liqueur(CSL) and calcium acetate and the cells with immobilized to the other half without nutrients. Screening of the healing process was done with ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) testing and stereomicroscopy. With this approach, the cracks on mortar surface were sealed and the water absorption capacity of the so-called self-healed mortar decreased compared to its counterpart cracked mortar samples.
Abstract
Factors affecting durability of concrete structures are generally associated with each other. Due to its brittle nature, concrete can crack under stress and these cracks are [...]
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Large Scale Laboratory and Field Tests of Aerogel Renders
J. Frick, N. Sakiyama, M. Stipetic, H. Garrecht

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Within the framework of the European project Wall-ACE a large-scale laboratory test (EOTA-Wall Test) was performed. Additional a test field in Switzerland was equipped with six different aerogel renders by the project partner AGITEC. Laboratory walls and test field were equipped with sensors to monitor in real-time climate, heat flux, temperature, relative humidity, and at the laboratory tests additional material moisture. The data allow calculating U-values and material parameters as well as drying behaviour of render and substrate. During and after the artificial weathering in laboratory the renders were subjected to visual inspection and mechanical adhesion tests. The performance of the aerogel renders will be assessed and compared with results on conventional insulation renders.
Abstract
Within the framework of the European project Wall-ACE a large-scale laboratory test (EOTA-Wall Test) was performed. Additional a test field in Switzerland was equipped with [...]
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Deterioration Prediction Model of Multi-Layer Coating Material and its Reference Service Life Evaluation in Terms of Carbonation Control Effect
K. Etchuya, K. Imamoto, C. Kiyohara

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In this paper, authors propose a method to predict deterioration of exterior finishes using Markov Chain Model based on field survey results on cracks of exterior finishes of existing RC buildings. There existed correlation between degradation of finishing and carbonation progress. Authors propose the service life prediction approach to focus on the carbonation suppression effect into the concrete considering progress of exterior finish deterioration.
Abstract
In this paper, authors propose a method to predict deterioration of exterior finishes using Markov Chain Model based on field survey results on cracks of exterior finishes [...]
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Compressive Strength Improvement and Water Permeability of Self-Healing Concrete Using Bacillus Subtilis Natto
H. Nguyen, K. Imamoto, C. Kiyohara

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In recent years, many projects have been carried out to enhance the durability of concrete structure from the influence of cracks. Generally, managing cracks should be a rather preventative method for sustainable development. Based on that, Bacillus subtilis natto - a local bacterium in Japan was found to have the ability to form CaCO3, which can be used as healing materials for cracks in the concrete structure. The bacterial biomineralization immobilized in lightweight aggregate was studied to improve the compressive strength by healing the cracks and densifying the structure. Moreover, as an essential parameter for durability enhancement, the water permeability of self-healing concrete through a water-flow system was carried out. Experimental results on the behavior of the materials indicate that Bacillus subtilis natto could lead the compressive strength to 40 % higher than the controls. Promising result in preventing the water through the cracks confirmed the self-healing effect with more potential in larger-scale.
Abstract
In recent years, many projects have been carried out to enhance the durability of concrete structure from the influence of cracks. Generally, managing cracks should be a rather [...]
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Drying Potential of Wood Frame Walls Subjected to Accidental Water Infiltration
M. Steeman, N. Bossche, K. Calle

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Wood frame construction is the most widespread building method. In Belgium the number of wood frame buildings has grown in the last years: in 2018 over 10% of all new built dwellings were wood frame buildings. This increase can be partly attributed to the growing attention for energy performant buildings with a low environmental impact. In contrary to masonry construction, wood frame is more vulnerable to moisture problems, mould growth and wood rot. An important risk is water infiltration through imperfections in the building envelope as a result of driving rain. Therefore it is important for the design to be resilient and allow drying without consequential damage. To analyze the drying potential, an experimental set-up with 8 wood frame compartments was built. The compartments differ in the type of insulation material (mineral wool or cellulose) and the type of vapour retarder (OSB or smart vapour retarder) that were used. In this way 4 types of compartments were obtained, each having a different combination of insulation and vapour retarder. Of each combination there are 2 identical compartments. This allows to insert water in one of both, to mimic rain water infiltration from the outside into the compartment. Temperature, relative humidity and moisture content were measured on different locations in the construction (in total 92 sensors). In this way, the hygrothermal performance of the compartments with and without water infiltration can be analyzed, as well as the drying rate.
Abstract
Wood frame construction is the most widespread building method. In Belgium the number of wood frame buildings has grown in the last years: in 2018 over 10% of all new built [...]
- 4
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Evaluation of Socio-economic Impacts of Incidents on the Railway Infrastructure
V. Hromádka, J. Korytárová, E. Vítková, T. Funk, H. Seelmann

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Evaluation of the economic efficiency of investment projects in transport infrastructure in the Czech Republic is methodically based on the Departmental Methodology of the Ministry of Transport. Economic cash flows, generated in accordance with the CBA principles, are modelled within this methodology on the basis of the evaluation of socio-economic impact of individual projects. In the case of the railway infrastructure constructions, the socio-economic impacts used by the methodology do not include benefits associated with increasing safety and reliability of the railway infrastructure network due to new security systems implementation. Determination of socio-economic impacts associated with specific types of incidents on the railway which are caused by insufficient railway infrastructure security and which could be eliminated by the implementation of the higher-level signaling equipment forms the subject of the research. The research is based on the analysis of a database of incidents occurring on the railway in the Czech Republic in the 2009 – 2018 period, which describes the basic impacts associated with a particular incident. Statistical data on the railway infrastructure is also used to determine the impact of incidents in addition to the database. The key outcomes of the research are the determination of methodological steps for the evaluation of the impacts of incidents on the railway and a case study for their verification. Future research will focus on making evaluation of the abovementioned benefits more detailed. Research outcomes will improve decision-making process on selection and financing of the projects related to railway infrastructure safety for their future implementation.
Abstract
Evaluation of the economic efficiency of investment projects in transport infrastructure in the Czech Republic is methodically based on the Departmental Methodology of the [...]
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Assessing Water Resistance and Surface Properties of ETICS
G. Borsoi, J. Parracha, P. Caiado, I. Flores-Colen, A. Dionísio, R. Veiga

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) contribute significantly to building energy efficiency by increasing thermal insulation, correcting thermal bridges and reducing interior water condensation. Additionally, these solutions protect the structure and thus enhance the durability of the building. The use of ETICS remarkably increased in the last three decades also due to the introduction of new international and national regulations on building energy efficiency (e.g. EU Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings). ETICS are constantly exposed to weathering (e.g. wind, rain, sun light) and anthropic factors (e.g. graffiti, environmental pollutants), which can lead to cracks, biocolonization and stains and thus affect ETICS durability. However, international technical documents on the evaluation of the effectiveness and durability of ETICS do not consider the possible synergies between these factors, which can trigger and speed up multiple biological, mechanical and chemical degradation processes. With the aim of filling this gap, this paper focused on the water resistance and surface properties of several ETICS surface coatings, verifying possible connections between these factors. The moisture transport properties (capillary water absorption, water vapour permeability, and drying kinetics) and surface properties (colour, brightness and roughness) of some commercially available ETICS were tested. This study is part of a wider research project (WGB_Shield: resistance for water, graffiti and biocolonization of external thermal insulation systems) that aims at the development of ETICS with improved durability in urban environment.
Abstract
External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) contribute significantly to building energy efficiency by increasing thermal insulation, correcting thermal bridges and [...]
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Durability Assessment of GFRP Rebars Exposed to High pH-Seawater
A. Emparanza, C. Morales, J. Palacios, F. Caso, A. Nanni

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
There is a continued process to implement innovative materials to enhance the sustainability and durability of the built infrastructure. Technologies developed over the last two decades have facilitated the use of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites as internal reinforcement bars (rebars) for concrete structures, which have proven to be an alternative to traditional steel reinforcement due to significant advantages, such as magnetic transparency and, most importantly, corrosion resistance, equating to durability and structural life extension. This study evaluates the durability of three different available and most commonly used GFRP rebar types, based on exposure to aggressive environments, such as those experienced in coastal areas. For that, the specimens were expose to high pH seawater solution (that simulates the alkalinity of the concrete exposed to seawater), at 60 ºC for different periods of time: 45, 90, and 180 days. The durability of these GFRP rebars was assessed by testing four different physio-mechanical properties, including: tensile strength, elastic modulus, and transverse and horizontal shear strength. Preliminary results show that the resilience of the GFRP rebars after being exposed to high pH seawater at high temperature, varies considerably among the three different types. The tensile strength was the most affected physio-mechanical property.
Abstract
There is a continued process to implement innovative materials to enhance the sustainability and durability of the built infrastructure. Technologies developed over the last [...]
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Client’s Expectations vs Contractor’s Pricing. Fair Prices or Bid Rigging
H. Anysz, A. Foremny

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The road construction sector is a specific part of the construction industry. It happens very rarely that a section of a road is financed also by a private entity. The other factor distinguishing it – is a significant value of road construction contracts. The Client’s estimates of the value of the prospective contracts have to be based on the market prices in case of public procurement. However, this market is dominated by public orders. There is no comparison to the value of works ordered on the private part of the construction market, which is found more efficient by economists. Widely applied the “design and build” type of orders make the comparisons of the unit prices more difficult. The huge differences between the Client’s estimates and the winning prices in the road construction public tender procedures are the bases of speculations about the fairness of the procedures. These differences can have a varied origin. There are several reasons for them e.g. varied contractor’s risk, the size of the structure, type of order, the dynamics of the road construction market. Nevertheless, fraudulent practices can make the winning price much higher than the Client’s estimate. The article is an attempt to finding the limit i.e. what part of these differences can be explained by fair, market reasons. If the found limit is exceeded, it should make the Client carefully consider the offers placed. The analysis is based on collected data concerning almost 400 tender procedures for the sections of roads in Poland in 2014-2017.
Abstract
The road construction sector is a specific part of the construction industry. It happens very rarely that a section of a road is financed also by a private entity. The other [...]
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Freeze-Thaw Deicing salt Attack on Concrete: Towards Engineering Modelling
C. Thiel, V. Lomakovych, C. Gehlen

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the construction sector is increasingly using clinker-reduced concretes. Concrete with high amounts of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) show increased durability performance in certain environmental conditions compared to concrete with Ordinary Portland cement (OPC). However, in laboratory studies, concrete with GGBFS show an increased initial scaling rate in comparison with OPC concrete. Changing weather conditions and high relative humidities > 70 % in field lead to less carbonation and thus, to a better freeze-thaw deicing salt resistance (FTDSR). Therefore, the current lab performance test penalizes GGBFS concrete. This contribution studied the impact of carbonation and intermittent dry periods on FTDSR of GGBFS concrete compared to that of OPC concrete. It could be shown that for concrete with OPC, intermittent dry periods lead to an accumulation of salt in the near surface, which causes a reduction of the scaling. GGBFS concrete, on the other hand, shows an opposite behavior: carbonation causes an increase in scaling after the dry period. GGBFS concrete samples with CO2-free pre-storage show the lowest scaling of all samples investigated. A better simulation of the behavior of GGBFS concrete could lead to economical as well as optimized solutions for the local environment conditions and enable the large-scale use of more environmentally-friendly concretes. Therefore, by taking the effect of carbonation and intermittent dry periods into account in a simple engineering model, the prediction of concrete scaling under consideration of real climatic conditions is possible in an eco-efficient manner.
Abstract
In order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the construction sector is increasingly using clinker-reduced concretes. Concrete with high amounts of ground granulated blast [...]
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Durability Studies of Self-Compacting Concrete containing Electric ArcFurnace Slag Aggregate
A. Santamaria, M. Skaf, V. Lopez, E. Briz, J. José, J. González

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The structure of self-compacting concretes containing electric arc-furnace slag, their mechanical behavior, and their durability are all studied in an extensive experimental campaign, to evaluate the suitability of three concrete mixes for use in real construction works. Specimens manufactured with self-compacting electric arc-furnace slag concrete are subjected to wetting-drying and freezing-thawing test procedures, for their study in aggressive environments, especially marine environments. In general, all the test results were quite encouraging. It was once again demonstrated that the use of electric arc-furnace slag in concrete represents an opportunity to reduce both the volume of siderurgical waste generated in our society, and the consumption of fresh raw materials.
Abstract
The structure of self-compacting concretes containing electric arc-furnace slag, their mechanical behavior, and their durability are all studied in an extensive experimental [...]
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OSB and Marine Plywood: Performance Comparison for use with Light Steel Frame Walls in Brazil
M. Junginger, M. Resende, L. Oliveira, V. John

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The use of light steel frame and wood frame in Brazil is still recent, hence there is little information about the durability of these technologies applied in Brazilian climate conditions. The wood-based boards are used as a part of the light steel or wood frame walls and are designed to contribute to the wall structural behavior (horizontal reinforcement and resistance to suspended loads). Once the information if such boards meet the DL (design life) set in the Brazilian code of residential building performance is still unknown, this paper analyses the technical characteristics of two woodbased boards - OSB and marine plywood - aiming to gather more information concerning durability under liquid water action. Thus, tests were carried out on samples of these two boards to evaluate their behavior against liquid water and after accelerated ageing test. In all cases, OSB showed to be more sensitive to early degradation than plywood.
Abstract
The use of light steel frame and wood frame in Brazil is still recent, hence there is little information about the durability of these technologies applied in Brazilian climate [...]
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Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analyses for Evaluating the Building Element‘s Replacement in Building LCA
K. Goulouti, P. Padey, A. Galimshina, G. Habert, S. Lasvaux

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This paper presents a systematic way to consider the uncertainties of the building elements‘service lives within a stochastic framework, by defining the corresponding probability density functions, based on a service life database. This methodology is appropriate for screening and detailed building LCA, since the service life database offers the possibility to define the probability density functions of the service lives, in different level of details
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic way to consider the uncertainties of the building elements‘service lives within a stochastic framework, by defining the corresponding probability [...]
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Composite Façade Elements with Self-Cleaning Surface made of UltraHigh-Performance Concrete (UHPC)
J. Werder, P. Fontana, J. Hoppe, S. Bilgin, B. Meng

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In the framework of the European project H-House various concrete façade elements were developed with the aim to ensure a long service life by combining a very durable material with selfcleaning properties. The façade elements presented are made of a shell of UHPC filled with blocks of aerated autoclaved concrete as insulating material. Self-cleaning properties were realized amongst others by imprinting a microstructure into the surface during casting. The paper focuses on selected technological aspects of the manufacturing process of prototypes which had to be performed in two concreting sections. Furthermore the challenges faced when upscaling the self-cleaning properties are addressed and the strategy to assess the self-cleaning properties by measuring the contact and the rolloff angel is presented. The results show that a successfull upscalaing process requires detailed planning and that the best results can often be achieved with a moderate work effort or material use.
Abstract
In the framework of the European project H-House various concrete façade elements were developed with the aim to ensure a long service life by combining a very durable [...]
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Macrocell Processes in Reinforced Concrete Structures
J. Lliso-Ferrando, J. Zamora, R. Bataller, J. Soto

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Corrosion of steel embedded in reinforced concrete is the phenomena that most affects the durability of this type of structures. The control and analysis of the rebars can help detect this problem beforehand, contributing to prevent costly repairs made when the damage is quite advanced. Currently, there are several techniques for measuring the corrosion rate of steel, but they have the disadvantage of being slow or requiring specialized tools. In addition, these techniques need direct connection to the rebars, so removing the concrete cover layer is necessary. This destructive technique is sometimes impossible to do because there are analysis zones which are inaccessible due to they are buried or submerged. Recently, using sensors embedded previously casting and external electrical connections let analyse the corrosion without using invasive techniques. This study presents the complementary technique of analysing macrocell currents in order to know the origin and direction of current in reinforcements. This technique requires less time and non-advanced material, only an ammeter and electrical connection to the rebars, executed before casting. In addition, this parameter provides information about the real corrosion of the different parts of the structure. In this study it is performed the laboratory analysis of this technique by the use of specimens containing one anode and one cathode inside them creating a macrocell. The influence of different environments on macrocell current intensities shall be studied and compared with other studied parameters as corrosion density.
Abstract
Corrosion of steel embedded in reinforced concrete is the phenomena that most affects the durability of this type of structures. The control and analysis of the rebars can [...]
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Evaluation of Pore Structure of Hardened Cement Paste Immersed in Sodium Sulfate Solution
H. Sakata, K. Sato, S. Saito

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The purpose of the present study is to evaluate pore structure of hardened cement paste immersed in sodium sulfate solutions and to experimentally examine the relation between the change of pore structure and hydration products. Cement paste specimens were immersed in sodium sulfate solutions and ion-exchanged water for two weeks. Since oxygen gas can pass through the pores having micro scale, it is possible to evaluate the effect of the pore structure on the oxygen transport in cement pastes. Thus, the oxygen diffusion coefficient (DO2) of the specimens after immersion were measured, and the pore volume and the pore size distribution were also measured. In addition, the phase compositions of the specimens were acquired. As a result, DO2 of the specimens immersed in the sodium sulfate solutions decreased as compared to the specimens immersed in the ion-exchanged water. The tortuosity of the specimens immersed in the sodium sulfate solutions increased due to decreasing of the pore volume having a diameter larger than 20 nm. There was a correlation between the volume of ettringite and the pore volume having a diameter larger than 20 nm. According to the above results, it was considered that the decreasing of DO2 in the case of sulfate immersion can occur as a result of the complication of the pore structure owing to filling of the pores by ettringite
Abstract
The purpose of the present study is to evaluate pore structure of hardened cement paste immersed in sodium sulfate solutions and to experimentally examine the relation between [...]
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Development of an Apparatus for Measuring the Load Acting on Joint Sealant when Movement Occurs
S. Ishihara, H. Miyauchi, A. Ito, K. Tanaka

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The sealant that fills the joints of an exterior walls of building is subjected to weather loads, such as sunlight, ambient temperature, and rain, as well as a movement of the joints. As a result, the sealant gradually deteriorates under the combined deterioration factors of weathering and movement. Meanwhile, the results of a 15-year outdoor dynamic exposure test conducted in Japan using the methodology of ISO 11617 showed that the progress of damage varies greatly depending on the type of sealant and the stress relaxation rate. However, the mechanism of damage progression is unclear. In the present study, we focused on the load when the sealant moves and developed a load-measuring apparatus as the first step in clarifying the relationship between the progress of damage and the load. The load was measured at −20, 23, and 40 °C for test specimens with different stress relaxation rates, and it was confirmed that the developed load-measuring apparatus was able to measure the load correctly. Furthermore, it was shown that it is difficult for the stress of the sealant with a high stress relaxation rate to relax over time at low temperature but easy at high temperature, and the load increases when switching from the compressed state to the extended state.
Abstract
The sealant that fills the joints of an exterior walls of building is subjected to weather loads, such as sunlight, ambient temperature, and rain, as well as a movement of [...]
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Durability of FRP Immersed in Water. Changes in Mechanical Properties
E. Bernat-Maso, M. Lis, L. Mercedes, L. Gil

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) have been widely used to strengthened construction structural elements in the last years because of their mechanical pros. However, the durability of these materials is always controversial. In particular, the effect of long-term contact with water on the mechanical properties of FRPs is studied in this research throughout the implementation of accelerated degradation tests. Samples of Carbon FRP and Glass FRP were immersed into supply water, water with salts and surfactants and highly chlorinated water. In all cases, electrical current passing through the samples was also imposed. Tensile tests on pristine and degraded samples were carried out to determine the influence of these aggressive environments on the tensile strength and the Young‘s modulus of the specimens. Finally, superficial (ATR) FT-IR analyses were conducted to assess possible chemical changes in the samples surfaces. Results indicated that the chemical composition of used resins was not modified due to the water exposure. No hydrolysis process took place during testing time on the surface. However, mechanical properties were reduced, especially when samples were exposed to plain supply water, which may be related to the physical degradation caused by moisture intake by diffusion.
Abstract
Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) have been widely used to strengthened construction structural elements in the last years because of their mechanical pros. However, the durability [...]
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Risk-Based Approach for Improving Concrete Bridges‘ Inspection Planning
S. Tronsli, S. Samarakoon, R. Ratnayake

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Visual inspection forms the basis of the inspection planning process for concrete bridges. The authority responsible for bridge inspection maintains a database to record past inspection results, in order to plan future inspections. It is a challenge to recognize and classify bridges that it is essential to inspect based on inherent requirements. This is further exacerbated by the limited budget available. This manuscript describes a methodology for classifying bridges based on risk of potential failure and distributing the annual inspection budget for carrying out inspections on bridges accordingly. The absence of such a methodology allocation of resources for bridge inspection without real need. For example, on some occasions it is not necessary to inspect certain bridges on a time basis. Hence, this study focuses on developing an inspection-planning approach based on the actual and predicted condition (i.e. based on the database of past inspection data). It enables the bridges to be classified into different categories, based on the risk of potential failures. This enables the effective distribution of annual budgets among the bridges, avoiding unnecessary inspection that incurs pointless inspection costs.
Abstract
Visual inspection forms the basis of the inspection planning process for concrete bridges. The authority responsible for bridge inspection maintains a database to record past [...]
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Earth Construction Durability: In-Service Deterioration of Compressed and Stabilized Earth Block (CSEB) Housing in Algeria
A. Benidir, M. Mahdad, A. Brara

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The present work deals with a unique in-service valuation of CSEB structures in Algeria. The inspection tries to bring out the impact of long time exposure under different and opposite climate and micro-seismic contexts. The diagnosis methodology is inspired by the approach largely adopted for the rehabilitation of traditional architecture. It involves the compilation of the previous survey reports, visual inspection of the structures, in-situ and laboratory tests to assess the residual CSEB mechanical properties. The CSEB constructions are located in the coastal north and the desertical south part of Algeria and were exposed respectively to a long-term Mediterranean and Saharian climate. The results of the investigation show that the CSEB in the construction located in the northern region is increasingly altered by the humidity. As the relative humidity rises, the fouling layers grow over some level. The surface pitting which is the consequence of long exposure to the wetting/drying cycles is also observed. The outer surfaces of the walls were honeycombed which reduce drastically the block resistance against the abrasion test. In some cases, differential erosion appears in the front of the walls, which indicates that the alteration does not proceed at the same rate from one area of the block to the other. However, owing to highly cementitious mortar used to join the earth blocks, the edges and corners remain unchipped. In the southern region where the arid climate dominating, the degradation of the CSEB is less prone to water attack but roughly exposed to the effect of the winddust frequent in this region and to the unawareness of the population. The paper presents also some recommendations to improve the earth construction durability with CSEB technique.
Abstract
The present work deals with a unique in-service valuation of CSEB structures in Algeria. The inspection tries to bring out the impact of long time exposure under different [...]
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A New Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) Mitigation Technology - Part I: Comparing with Li, Ca, Al Salts, and Densified Silica Fume
F. Ong, M. Myers, T. Vickers, J. Atienza, L. Ko, P. Seiler

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a major concrete durability problem. The occurrence of ASR results in significant maintenance and reconstruction costs to concrete infrastructures all over the world. Ever since Stanton (1940) discovered the expansive characteristics of ASR in 1940, there has been much speculation as to the cause and actual mechanism of expansion. Current market solutions are not always sustainable, such as hauling non-reactive aggregates or fly ash from long distance; or use of Li-based chemical admixture that is facing challenge of raw material‘s availability. The current article will present a patent pending technology which provides a commercial solution for mitigating the ASR. The ASR mitigating effect of this technology is compared with lithium, calcium, and aluminum salts, and densified silica fume.
Abstract
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a major concrete durability problem. The occurrence of ASR results in significant maintenance and reconstruction costs to concrete infrastructures [...]
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Thermodynamic Processes in Nanostructured Thermocoatings
D. Bozsaky

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
In the 21st century, global climate change and the high level of fossil energy consumption have introduced changes affecting all sectors of the economy, including the building industry. This process has prompted EU members to create strict regulations in building energetics. It has become a serious task for architects to find more effective ways for thermal insulation. One of these options is the application of nanostructured materials. Among them nano-ceramic thermocoatings open a wide range of research fields, because complete agreement had not been already found about their insulating effect. In order to explore and describe the thermodynamic process inside nano-ceramic thermocoatings 6 series of heat transfer resistance experiments were performed in 2014-2018. Several building structure configurations with 12 different orders of layers were tested with a standard heat flow meter. On basis of these results it could be concluded that in case of nano-structured thermocoatings convective heat transfer coefficient might be taken account in different way than in case of traditional macro-structured thermal insulation materials. Based on research results, the limits of its applicability can also be concluded. It has also been found that the insulating effect of nanostructured thermocoatings depends on the material characteristics of the insulated surface.
Abstract
In the 21st century, global climate change and the high level of fossil energy consumption have introduced changes affecting all sectors of the economy, including the building [...]
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Probabilistic Approach to the Service Life Prediction of Timber Claddings
A. Silva, A. Prieto

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The service life of buildings and components is extremely difficult to model and predict, mainly due to the uncertainty and variability associated with the degradation phenomena. These uncertainties are usually related with the intrinsic randomness of natural phenomena, such as the environmental degradation agents. In order to deal with these uncertainties, in this study, a stochastic approach is used, to model the service life of timber claddings. For this purpose, a logistic regression analysis is used to evaluate the probability of timber claddings to reach the end of their service life over time. Moreover, the impact of the environmental exposure conditions (e.g. facades orientation, distance from the ocean, exposure to damp and exposure to wind/rain action), which influence the degradation and service life of timber claddings, is also evaluated. The proposed models are applied to 150 timber claddings, located in Valdivia (South Chile), which have been analysed during an extensive fieldwork survey. The results obtained in this study aid the definition of maintenance plans, in a technically informed manner, in order to promote the conservation of these claddings, which are an important symbol of the local identity of this region, depicting a complexity of cultural values, inherited by Spanish and German colonisations.
Abstract
The service life of buildings and components is extremely difficult to model and predict, mainly due to the uncertainty and variability associated with the degradation phenomena. [...]
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Maintenance-Oriented Design in Architecture. A Decision Support System for the Evaluation of Maintenance Scenarios Through Bayesian Networks Use. A Case Study: the Headquarters of ING Groupe in Amsterdam
M. Sivo, D. Ladiana, F. Novi, C. Salvatori

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This study was developed at the Department of Architecture of Pescara and Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction Engineering of the University of Pisa as part of an experimental thesis that led to the implementation of a Decision Support System. The objective of the work was to implement a tool capable of evaluating - in relation to the choices concerning the morphology of the building, the construction technologies, the materials and the design of the architectural elements - the levels of maintenance quality implemented in the various phases of the project, from the first phases, in which few relevant decisions are made, to the executive phase characterized by a multiplicity of choices. The aim was to construct a tool in which the reliability of the evaluations was related to the quantity and quality of the data that feeds the decision-making process, but which is also able to evaluate preliminary decisions based on the elements of choice that characterize the first phases of the project. The conceptual model has been defined through the construction and implementation of a Bayesian Network or a graphical system of probabilistic inference able to represent the set of stochastic variables and their conditional dependencies through the use of a direct acyclic graph. Through the interrogation of the network it is therefore possible to evaluate through the expression of a synthetic index, a real overall rating of the different aspects that contribute to define the maintenance quality. The use of Bayesian Networks, in the light of the analyses carried out on an experimental basis - exemplified here on the case study of ING Groupe headquarters - for the ability to control a multitude of factors linked to the durability of materials, the morphology of systems and ease of intervention, seems capable of generating useful, effective and expandable tools to support the design decision-making process.
Abstract
This study was developed at the Department of Architecture of Pescara and Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Construction Engineering of the University of Pisa as [...]
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Smalti Murano Glass Tessella’s Applied Outdoor in the Trencadís Catalan Modernism Mosaic: Recognition of Preliminary Alteration Patterns
R. Fabregà, J. Mestre, P. Arias

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This contribution presents previous results of a study carried out with the aim of achieving better results in the restoration processes by replacing the tiles of an exterior mosaic tiling of the Trencadís type of Catalan Modernism. In this case the trencadís tiles come from the cutting of pieces, called piastras, of opaque and mass-colored glass called Smalti Murano glass. These companies have extensive color catalogs that, although not exactly the same as they were a century ago, are close enough for these replacement tasks. Each color corresponds, however, to a different composition of glass and a slightly different manufacturing process. These differences favor that the differences of color always go accompanied also of differences of superficial aspect. However, not all color references currently available have the same surface quality since this product, during its manufacture, acquires primary defects typical of artisanal processes. So far the predominant criteria for the selection of the new references of piastras that must replace the product damaged by the extensive exposure to the weather as a coating are based primarily on color. However, durability requirements must also be part of the selection criteria for substitution references. The primary defects that a product already presents in its superficial quality are often indicators of either a more irregular quality or of circumstances that favor the early appearance of secondary defects throughout its useful life. The main objective of this study is to ensure, in restoration work by substitution, the selection of the best piastras from the point of view of surface quality, to apply on site the most similar tiles of tone and with greater durability. This study is part of a collaboration between the study group LiTA (Laboratori d‘Innovació i Tecnologia de l‘Arquitectura) (UPC) and a private non-profit organization.
Abstract
This contribution presents previous results of a study carried out with the aim of achieving better results in the restoration processes by replacing the tiles of an exterior [...]
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Post Peak Behavior of Carbonated Concrete Structure - A Case Study of the Former Shime Mining Office Vertical Derrick in Japan
K. Su, K. Imamoto, T. Noguchi, M. Kanematsu, H. Hamasaki, K. Teranishi, C. Kiyohara, M. Yamada

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
This paper is a report on the investigation results of the Former Shime Mining Office Vertical Derrick, which was built in 1943 and was 75 years old at the time of the investigation. The building suffered from serious deterioration including rebar corrosion, which led to large area of concrete spalling. In this report, aggregation data of concrete spalling has been presented along with the investigation results of cover thickness. According to the investigation results, concrete spalling occurred in places where cover thickness was less than 25 mm. And According to the aggregation data, concrete spalling flakes increased by approximately 200 pieces per year, with the average size of 10 cm in diameter. Also, a possible relation between concrete spalling and rainfall was observed during the investigation. Equations using the proportion of wet area affected by rainfall to estimate the area of spalling are proposed, although the value of empirical coefficientαneeds further discussion, including collecting data from other buildings where spalling occurs.
Abstract
This paper is a report on the investigation results of the Former Shime Mining Office Vertical Derrick, which was built in 1943 and was 75 years old at the time of the investigation. [...]
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Determination of the Deterioration Characteristics of Facade Materials: A Case Study
N. Kokulu

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Deterioration of the facade materials of a building and its importance are topics that are not getting the attention that they deserve and need. If a material can’t meet its accepted performance criterion during its service life then deterioration may occur on the surface, inside, under or at the structure of the material. Environmental, construction related, and human related agents collaborate with the mechanisms and make an effect which concerns the durability. Therefore, detecting the deteriorations of the materials play an important role for the maintenance planning. This study aims to detect the agents, mechanisms and effects of the deteriorations of a case building. A systematic approach was developed by making literature review. Hostile environmental analysis and building facade inspection have been made by the visual observations on a specific day. Deteriorations occurred at granite, wood composite, aluminum, glass and ceramic materials have been discussed.
Abstract
Deterioration of the facade materials of a building and its importance are topics that are not getting the attention that they deserve and need. If a material can’t meet [...]
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Case Study of Pathological Manifestations of Neoprene Support Devices in Infrastructure
F. Gonçalves, L. Alves, A. Haddad, E. Vazquez

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The so-called works of special arts, are constructions of high complexities that allow the advancement of widening gaps and overcoming obstacles previously unthinkable. With the increase in magnitude of these structures, in addition to greater investments, the maintenance of these structures becomes an increasingly important factor for engineering. Among the elements of bridge structures, the support devices are components with important structural functions, being essential for their proper functioning and especially the durability of the entire structure. This paper aims to evaluate the pathological manifestations in support devices so, according to inspections performed and the diagnosis of causes, define their best practices and treatments for the maintenance and mitigation of the pathologies found. In the practical study the following steps were performed: survey and selection of the structures currently under maintenance of MetrôRio; selection of criteria for the evaluation of pathologies; carrying out inspections; comparative analysis between the viaducts to determine the priority order for negotiations; and definition of conduct. The results obtained were the result of evaluation of the field analysis, diagnosis and comparison with tests performed in support devices. Having as input the tests in the support devices, the best treatments and suggestions to avoid new pathologies were proposed.
Abstract
The so-called works of special arts, are constructions of high complexities that allow the advancement of widening gaps and overcoming obstacles previously unthinkable. With [...]
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Deformation Velocity Survey in Mortar and Cement Paste Specimens Subjected to External Aggressive Attacks
C. Tedeschi, E. Garavaglia

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The durability of concrete depends not only on the composition of the material and its resulting porosity, but also on the environmental conditions. Contact between concrete or cement mortars with water and soils containing sulphates, of a natural, biological origin or deriving from pollution, can activate chemical reactions in the cement paste inducing an expansion and degradation of the concrete. To evaluate the behaviour of the cementitious material subjected to various external aggressive attacks, prismatic samples of cement paste and mortar samples produced with the same binder (Portland cement) were immersed in demineralised water and in various solutions containing 5% and 10% sodium sulphates. Their expansion was monitored over time by a direct length measurement. This paper shows the results achieved in a rather long laboratory investigation and a first hypothesis has been formulated on the possible expansion rate in the first 56 test days and in the following 850 days.
Abstract
The durability of concrete depends not only on the composition of the material and its resulting porosity, but also on the environmental conditions. Contact between concrete [...]
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Innovative Approaches to Increase Service Life of Poplar Lightweight Hardwood Construction Products
J. Acker, X. Jiang, J. Bulcke

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
During the second half of last century the forestry-wood chain has evolved and today ecosystem services in a sustainability framework are important. Forests are intended to provide services for the bio-economy, human health, biodiversity and climate control. An increased need for more renewable resources both for material and energy use has initiated extra interest for the potential to produce more lignocellulosic biomass, in short to increase wood production. One option is to provide in complementary production in planted forests. Both forestry and agriculture can take part in this. The cultivation of poplar hybrids in the temperate regions is a key option for the current and future bioeconomy. These fast-growing trees are producing lightweight hardwood with a low natural durability, but with an important potential as construction material especially as engineered wood products. All wood protection methods are of interest to be evaluated for this wood resource, making it suitable even for high quality applications. Poplar, for many reasons, has been nominated as hardwood with the best potential to perform similarly as softwoods for applications in wood construction. Benchmarking with wood species like spruce is relevant for several engineered wood products like plywood, LVL and even CLT. Wood treatments to increase durability have evolved from traditional wood preservation towards modification techniques such as thermally modified timber. Innovative poplar based products have been assessed on their performance and are designed to fit for purpose in relation to a specific combination of use class and service life. Introducing innovative poplar based construction product for green building requires adequate testing tools. Performance based assessment should allow to integrate different protective measures. Related to moisture dynamics and the linked fungal decay risk, opportunities to extend service life are manifold. Treatment can be differentiated e.g. for cladding (building envelope) and loadbearing construction components. Simple or sophisticated modification processes can alter the equilibrium moisture content. The use of wood based panels and new engineered wood products allow for better moisture control impacting fungal decay risk, but also alter the probability of insect damage. This paper intends to present several innovative poplar based construction products and show some cases of benchmarking in relation to an integrated service life approach.
Abstract
During the second half of last century the forestry-wood chain has evolved and today ecosystem services in a sustainability framework are important. Forests are intended to [...]
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Effect of Mortar Age on the Textile-to-Mortar Bond Behavior
A. Dalalbashi, B. Ghiassi, D. Oliveira

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Textile-reinforced mortar (TRM) composites have received extensive attention as a sustainable solution for seismic strengthening of masonry and historical structures. This new system is composed of textile fibers embedded in an inorganic matrix and is applied on the masonry and the concrete substrate surface as an externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) system. The bond at the textile-to-mortar interfaces is the main stress-transfer mechanism and, therefore, should be thoroughly investigated. Furthermore, the effectiveness of TRMs in improving the seismic performance of existing structures is highly dependent on the durability of its components, materials, textile-to-mortar bond, and their long-term behavior. Due to the novelty of these materials in application to masonry structures, several aspects related to the durability and long-term performance of them are still not clear. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at the time effect on the mechanical properties and bond behavior between fiber and mortar. For this purpose, two different hydraulic lime-based mortars, as well as steel and glass fibers, are used to investigate the effect of mortar age on the TRM system after 180 days. The results show that at the early age of mortars, their mechanical properties, and the bond behavior of textile-to-mortar have been increased. Another critical point to remember is that by increasing the mortar age, textile-to-mortar bond and mortar strength are decreased.
Abstract
Textile-reinforced mortar (TRM) composites have received extensive attention as a sustainable solution for seismic strengthening of masonry and historical structures. This [...]
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Development of a Damage Detecting Method for RC Slabs by Means of Machine Learning
Y. Tanaka, T. Nishida

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
It is beneficial to understand damage conditions of RC structural members by non-destructive methods. In this study, K-means clustering method was applied to the AE wave data in order to develop a damage detection method. From the result of this study, the damaged area had the relatively large number of AE hits and AE energy. In addition, from the result of the K-means clustering of the power spectral density of AE waves, the data could be separated into the obviously damaged area and other areas.
Abstract
It is beneficial to understand damage conditions of RC structural members by non-destructive methods. In this study, K-means clustering method was applied to the AE wave data [...]
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A Maintenance Management Model. Upgrading and Experimentation
M. Azzalin, M. Lauria

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The paper deals with the first results of the activities of BIG Building Innovative Governance srl, Academic Spin-Off and Innovative Start Up, which provides smart services for Building Maintenance and Facility Management also launching circular R&D actions in the relative reference areas. The contribution introduces some actions actually in progress geared to upgrading the Maintenance Management Model, M3, specifically aimed at managing the life cycle of buildings. The current stage of development corresponds to a TRL 4. TRL 8 is that expected by the end of 2020. Characterized by interconnectivity and scalability, the Maintenance Management Model is a dynamic, collaborative and implementable system, whose architecture consists of three separated but strongly interconnected devices: an information interface system, a collaborative platform, a remote cloud. An ICT network infrastructure able to activate using BIM models (IFC and COBie standards) circular information workflows between all operators and/or users involved in Maintenance and Facility Management processes. It allows the development and/or implementation of information management and sharing models based on Open Data and Semantic Web. Its use will also promote shared lexicons and the circulation of knowledge within a holistic process of managing information from and for Maintenance. The use of BIM models and the possibility of collecting and managing a large amount of data will be oriented to the structuring of information feedback databases according to ISO 15686 guidelines. In this way, available information can be usefully transferred in life cycle assessments and service life prediction of materials and components.
Abstract
The paper deals with the first results of the activities of BIG Building Innovative Governance srl, Academic Spin-Off and Innovative Start Up, which provides smart services [...]
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Mechanical Behaviour of ETICS in Presence of Water
F. Cecconi, G. Cocchetti, A. Cornaggia, T. Villa

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Climate change and the request for better assets’ energy performances are forcing the construction sector towards passive or even active buildings: assets with a positive balance between energy production and consumption. Building insulations play a crucial role in reducing energy demand. One of the most used technology to insulate new and refurbished buildings are the External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS). Despite their thermal advantages, low cost, and ease of application, these systems may have serious problems if not well designed. Cracks on the coating layer are among the most common pathologies during ETICS service life. They have been studied using a Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis on two different types of ETICS in order to understand how cracks and the mechanical characteristics of materials used in the ETICS are related. The results show that errors during ETICS installation impacts on cracks occurrence as much as the mechanical performances of some layers. The FEM analysis have been complemented by the experimental study of the mechanical behavior of the coating layer under the effect of rainwater, in order to better understand ETICS behavior over their service life.
Abstract
Climate change and the request for better assets’ energy performances are forcing the construction sector towards passive or even active buildings: assets with a positive [...]
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Performance of European Wood Species in Above Ground Situations After 10 Years of Weathering: Evidence of a Positive Impact of Proper Design
M. Kutnik, M. Gabillé, M. Montibus

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
. Most of European native wood species used outdoors are expected to last less than 10 years if left untreated and exposed to severe environmental conditions such as high humidity and biological agents. However, the current classification of wood’s natural durability based on EN standards does not fully reflect real end-use conditions, often underestimating wood’s performance in use. In addition, the importance of design details and the role they play in enhancing service life, especially in the case of outdoor applications, is often neglected. With the aim of evaluating the positive impact of proper design on wood’s service life, large-scale experimental devices, manufactured according to different designs (water draining / trapping) from six native wood species, were installed in 2009 in two French cities benefiting from different climatic conditions (oceanic / continental). The results of the evaluation carried out after 10 years of natural weathering demonstrated that (1) significant differences in the ability to withstand decay over time exist depending on the selected design details and the climatic conditions encountered in the experimental fields; (2) high variability in the resistance of non-durable spruce and poplar wood against fungal decay was noticed for each tested design, but with an unexpected high percentage of elements performing very well; (3) the moderately durable heartwood of larch, maritime pine and Douglas fir was mostly unaffected by decay even under severe conditions of exposure to rain (decking modules), suggesting these species may have greater value for outdoor applications without any preservative biocidal treatment than previously assumed.
Abstract
. Most of European native wood species used outdoors are expected to last less than 10 years if left untreated and exposed to severe environmental conditions such as high [...]
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Non-Destructive Evaluation of Micro-Cracked SCC by Ultrasonic Waves
I. Palomar, G. Barluenga, H. Varela, J. Puentes, Á. Rodríguez

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is an effective, reliable and safer technology to cast-inplace concrete structures. However, the large amount of paste required to achieve its high flowability may increase drying shrinkage at early age, due to the undesirable effects of curing conditions, producing micro-cracking and damaging concrete members. When this happens, an evaluation of the hardened SCC is necessary and Non-destructive testing techniques (NDT) can be suitable. Among NDT, Ultrasonic pulses (US) have showed to be very useful due to its portability, easiness of application and sensitivity to changes in material microstructure, porosity and presence of defects. In order to evaluate the applicability of ultrasonic (US) waves to better understand the relations among composition, microstructure, properties, curing conditions and micro-cracking, an experimental program using transmission P- and S- waves was carried out on SCC with limestone filler (LF), microsilica (MS) and nanosilica (NS), set and hardened under different curing conditions: 10, 20 and 30 °C and 40 and 80% relative humidity. Free shrinkage and double displacement restrained slabs were tested and cracking potential due to Early Age Shrinkage was assessed. Ultrasonic transmission time and wave amplitude of the raw US signal were measured and Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and attenuation coefficient were calculated. In addition, some physical and mechanical properties of cracked and un-cracked samples were measured. The aim of this study was to compare US parameters to hardened properties of cracked and un-cracked SCC. Correlations for SCC micro-cracking based on US parameters were identified, demonstrating the potential of using transmission US P- and S- waves as an evaluation technique for micro-damaged SCC
Abstract
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is an effective, reliable and safer technology to cast-inplace concrete structures. However, the large amount of paste required to achieve its [...]
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Influence of Drying on Accelerated Carbonation Testing of Concrete
J. Gallias, B. Fiorio, Y. Tong, M. Benaissa

Current Topics and Trends on Durability of Building Materials and Components, Serrat et al. (Eds).

Abstract
The aim of this work is to better understand the influence of drying conditions and moisture content of concrete on the carbonation kinetics during accelerated tests. Cylindrical specimens of a typical concrete formulation for buildings were dried, after 28 days wet curing, under three different conditions: 80°C, 45°C and 20°C and 50% RH. The carbonation depth and the height of water absorption were measured during 70 days testing under 3% CO2, 20°C and 65% RH. The results show that there is a significant difference in the drying behavior of cylindrical specimens between the lateral cast surface and their circular free surface. But, the drying cycle before accelerated carbonation tests has more influence on the carbonation rate than the type of exposed surface
Abstract
The aim of this work is to better understand the influence of drying conditions and moisture content of concrete on the carbonation kinetics during accelerated tests. Cylindrical [...]
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