Abstract

The main goal of this article is to bring up the topic of irony in the essay as a literary genre, based on the considerations made by Eugeni d’Ors, Josep Pla and Joan Fuster. The emergence of the definition of irony as an incomplete adhesion, which refers to Ors although it has lasted especially through Pla, is revised here; the intellectual history of the definition is analyzed in order to consider in which moment Fuster’s essay relates to it and, taking irony as a starting point, it gives a boost to ontemporary Catalan essay.

Abstract

Policy makers have proposed various incentive programs to curb consumption-related problems, such as traffic congestion and carbon emissions. While experts consider such programs effective in reducing those problems, consumers are more skeptical. Although this "effectiveness skepticism" is currently viewed as an important cause of public opposition, the authors argue that it may also arise as a consequence of opposition. Specifically, consumers oppose policies they consider personally unattractive or unfair. This opposition motivates them to also be skeptical about the potential effectiveness of such policies. Three studies that include a variety of methods, policies, and samples provide empirical support for this reasoning: perceptions of expected effects can be biased by consumers' perceptions of personal attractiveness and fairness. In line with this causal ordering, the authors find that offering optimistic effectiveness estimates, although successful in reducing effectiveness skepticism, did not boost policy support. Policy makers aiming to boost support prior to implementation should thus not only communicate a policy's effectiveness, but also address other causes of opposition.