Documents published in Scipedia

• Influence of Temperature Increase on the Degradation Evolution of Rendered Façades

  J. Barrelas, A. Silva, J. de Brito, A. Tadeu

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Climate change could alter the natural degradation pattern of buildings and their components. Façade claddings are directly exposed to the action of environmental agents, thus being particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Determining the expected degradation of the façades’ external layer, according to climate parameters’ projections, could be useful in the context of maintenance planning and adaptation to climate change. The present study intends to deepen the knowledge about the influence of temperature on the degradation evolution of rendered façades, considering the analysis of possible correlations between variables, based on observed and recorded climate data. It covers the degradation evolution of a sample of 26 rendered façades located in Lisbon, Portugal, based on the mean triennial degradation rate (∆Sw,mt) for periods of three years between 1990 and 2020. The severity of degradation index (Sw) of each façade, assessed through visual inspections in two moments in time, is used to model the individual degradation of the respective case study, necessary to calculate the sample’s ∆Sw,mt of to each triennium. The correlation between the dependent variable ∆Sw,mt and the independent variable ‘maximum temperature’ is significant, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of approximately -0.89. The negative trend shows that the degradation of the sample tends to decelerate with the increase of maximum temperature. Therefore, the temperature warming projected for the end of the century could contribute to lessen the rate of rendered façades’ degradation in the future, in Portugal or in analogous areas of the Mediterranean. The present study is part of a methodology that is being developed to quantify the impact of changes in climate parameters on the future degradation of rendered façades. Further research is necessary regarding the degradation projections, based on the climate change signal for maximum temperatures.

  Abstract
  Climate change could alter the natural degradation pattern of buildings and their components. Façade claddings are directly exposed to the action of environmental agents, [...]

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• Impact of High-resolution Regional Climate Conditions on the Moisture Performance of Wood-frame Building Envelopes

  C. Aggarwal, L. Wang, M. Junginger, M. Defo, A. Gaur, H. Ge, M. Lacasse

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Climate data is one of the most important inputs for hygrothermal simulations and significantly influences the simulation results that are used for moisture performance assessment of building envelopes. Conventionally, climate data from representative weather stations are used for hygrothermal simulations to assess the moisture performance of the buildings. Recently, the Construction Research Centre of the National Research Council Canada generated historical and future climate data for 564 locations across Canada. In this paper, the climate data of four urban locations within Vancouver (a humid and warm coastal city in Canada) were selected for hygrothermal simulations. These include an open area at the airport, a city center, an area surrounded by plants, and an area surrounded by a water body. The 31-year-long simulations were performed for a typical woodframe wall assembly complying with moisture protection designs as provided in the National Building Code Canada (NBCC 2020) but rain penetration was assumed considering the deficiency of exterior cladding. The differences in its hygrothermal response across the four locations were analyzed. It was found that some climate parameters are significantly different among the selected locations, although the values for moisture indices given in the NBCC 2020 for these locations are all similar. The results show that high values of WDR are the dominant factor that drives the moisture performance but there is no indication that the design of the assembly could be different among the tested locations.

  Abstract
  Climate data is one of the most important inputs for hygrothermal simulations and significantly influences the simulation results that are used for moisture performance assessment [...]

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• Hygrothermal Performance of External Wall Systems Under Current Climatic Conditions and Future Climate Projections of Turkey

  C. Baş, A. Türkeri, M. Lacasse

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  External wall failures caused by rainwater ingress are very common in Turkey. External wall systems that fail to meet the expected watertightness performance may cause premature deterioration of building components, create health hazards for users, and lead to a financial burden for building owners and in respect to the premature deterioration of public buildings, this also has repercussions on the national economy. In addition to the current climatic conditions, thermal and moisture loads that effect the buildings are expected to increase in the future due to climate change. In regards to climate change mitigation strategies, as have been emphasized for the building sector in Turkey, the national government is promoting the use of thermal insulation. However, given that the thermal performance of the most commonly used thermal insulation materials in Turkey are affected by moisture, it is important to evaluate the hygrothermal performance of external wall systems to help ensure the effectiveness and longevity of any proposed measures to mitigate the effects of climate change on building performance. In this paper, the state of the art is presented in respect to investigations of the hygrothermal performance of external wall systems. The research is analyzed based on climatic conditions to which the wall is exposed, the type of external wall assembly investigated, and the method of investigation described in the studies reviewed. The results indicate that the hygrothermal performance of external walls has been extensively investigated; however, there is relatively little research focusing on the hygrothermal performance of external walls subjected to the current climatic conditions of Turkey. In those studies that focused on evaluating the hygrothermal performance of external wall systems under future climate projections, these have been conducted for the cold climate regions of Canada, USA, Norway, and Finland. The hygrothermal performance of external walls under future climate projections for any region of Turkey has not yet been explored.

  Abstract
  External wall failures caused by rainwater ingress are very common in Turkey. External wall systems that fail to meet the expected watertightness performance may cause premature [...]

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• Evaluation of Defects Incidence and Severity on Building Façade: A Case Study

  H. Yasemin Cakir, S. Emanet, Z. Melis Oguz

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  20th century buildings are referred to as modern heritage and suggested to be conserved them because they reflect the particular characteristics of the period. To conserve and sustain modern buildings against agents of degradation, such as the inherent quality characteristics, environmental agents, and operational conditions, an important consideration is the observation, from inspection, and documentation of building defects as may reflect the current condition state of the building. In the scope of the study, façade defects of one of the modern period buildings located in the Fatih district of Istanbul/Turkey – the Istanbul Esnaf Hospital was inspected and analyzed. This building was constructed between 1955-1963 with T-shaped plan which consists of eight façades, for which defects, located on six of the building’s façades, were evaluated. The aim of the study is the evaluation of defects in relation to: the orientation of the façade; the location defects on the façade; the façade material, that consisted of a rendered and painted façade, incorporating a mosaic of ceramics, and; the perceived causes of defects. The study consists of three stages (i) data collection, (ii) analysis of defects, and (iii) comparative evaluation of defects. In the first stage, environmental, architectural, and material data are presented. After which, defects on the building façade were detected through a field inspection and were systematically classified. In the final stage, the findings from comparative evaluations of defects and their relation to the orientation of the façade, location on the façade, material, and causes are given. The analysis shows that the incidence of defects is primarily related to design decisions, i.e., the architectural features of the building. Dirt/stain and cracking are two of the most observed defects. Stain/dirt defects are mostly observed under windowsills and recessed areas due to architectural features typical of this modern period. Whereas it was observed that cracks were generally locate around openings and balconies. Material loss and detachment were generally related to impact from vehicles and were concentrated on two of the façades having high usage. On the other hand, biological growth, and efflorescence were principally caused by outdoor environmental conditions.

  Abstract
  20th century buildings are referred to as modern heritage and suggested to be conserved them because they reflect the particular characteristics of the period. To conserve [...]

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• A Comparison of Nature-based Solutions and Related Policies for UrbanEnvironment in China and Canada

  Z. Xiao, H. Ge, M. Lacasse

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Nature-based solutions (NBS) are considered and implemented in many places around the world as a means to mitigate the impact of climate change on the urban environment. NBS can provide useful approaches to mitigate the urban heat island effect, reduce energy consumption of buildings, sequestrate carbon from the atmosphere, as well as improve comfort to pedestrians in the urban environment. However, the implementation of NBS usually requires extra resources, i.e., valuable land within the urban fabric, additional funds for the design and construction of buildings that incorporate NBS, and additional operational costs for maintaining relevant systems, which may conflict with individual building owner’s interests, but nonetheless, be beneficial for the public at large. Under these circumstances, relevant policies should be established to set minimum performance requirements and incentives be introduced to encourage the implementation of relevant practices. China and Canada have set a target of achieving carbon neutral, by 2060 and 2050, respectively. Implementing such policies is critical for realizing the contributions of NBS in the building sector and helping achieve carbon neutrality in urban areas. For the study described in this paper, polices related to the implementation of NBS as issued by selected cities in China and Canada are reviewed. Scopes and limitations of policies from these two countries are summarized and compared. Suggestions and requirements provided in the policies are discussed in conjunction with the findings and conclusions from scientific articles related to the NBS.

  Abstract
  Nature-based solutions (NBS) are considered and implemented in many places around the world as a means to mitigate the impact of climate change on the urban environment. NBS [...]

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• How Environmental Circumstances Influence Water Repellent Treatment Efficiency – A Case Study of Bentheim Sandstone

  X. Chen, T. De Kock, V. Cnudde, N. Van Den Bossche

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Water repellents are widely applied directly to the outer surfaces of existing buildings to increase the hydrophobicity and durability of historic facades. Nevertheless, there is little control over the initial moisture content inside masonry and boundary conditions in practice. The fluctuating temperature and moisture content of a wall are inevitable when applying the treatment under natural climatic conditions, therefore the efficiency under realistic application approaches may not be as optimal as in the lab. This research aims to understand how application circumstances affect the hydrophobic efficiency of a siloxane-based water-repellent solvent on sandstone. Samples with different moisture content were treated and cured under different temperature to simulate various field climate conditions in practical applications. The experiments indicate that application temperature and relative humidity have little effect on water-repellent efficiency. The water-repellent product is also effective on saturated walls.

  Abstract
  Water repellents are widely applied directly to the outer surfaces of existing buildings to increase the hydrophobicity and durability of historic facades. Nevertheless, there [...]

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• Holism vs. Sustainability in Construction

  T. Szkuta

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Introduction, motivation: almost 40 years of observation, work and cooperation with investors, designers, contractors, manufacturers, distributors, authorities directly in the construction, rescue of monuments, problem solving, design, implementation, maintenance of facilities is a field of research. I have been there to see how and why construction facilities are implemented, used and protected. The title holism is a good method for analyzing problems but also a tool for predicting the necessary characteristics of what we want to create. Holism is a way of thinking about a problem. Where it is applied it gives good results, especially in the long term. It allows one to see the consequences of the flow of time more easily than reductionism. The study of the causes of a problem is broader which allows us to better diagnose and solve it. It makes you always analyze the effects on the whole object and its environment. It places each problem in the context of nearer, farther, sometimes very far and the passage of time. An important element is the analysis of human behavior during the creation and life of the object. Most of the ways to research and determine the condition of objects are obviously known and used. The problem is to determine them (almost) all and the details. Understanding Aristotle's "The more you know, the more you realize you don't know." is crucial here. The point is to explore and come to a conclusion without "closing the door" to more sometimes diametrically opposed knowledge as you go along. Holism in construction can be formulated, describing principles so as to facilitate broader analysis. Such an approach is desirable, which will give the opportunity to benefit from the results to people with different levels of competence, that is, the majority. The purpose of the paper is to try to systematize the approach and show, with examples, why it is worth using. Method: shown in the table are the elements of the research method used in the appraiser's practice. Some areas and elements should be analyzed for the recognition and determination of conditions, impacts and behaviors of construction objects are described. It was determined how to situate the problem in the broadest possible context, with particular attention to typical human behavior. As it turns out, this context is underestimated here. Due to the small volume of the text, examples were limited to the analysis of two relevant elements: lime mortar brick masonry and monolithic reinforced concrete. Objects from the appraiser's practice were selected. For masonry, a school building from the early 20th century and a farmhouse from the mid-19th century. For reinforced concrete, the school swimming pool erected in 1968 and the building of the printing house from 1972, both in emergency condition. Results: The time caesura is important for the results of the conducted research. The indicated errors in the selection of repair methods and materials are due to simplistic methods of analyzing problems. Overlooking the longevity of existence under different conditions and the most important influence of human behavior at each stage of the establishment, use and existence of building structures prove to be crucial.

  Abstract
  Introduction, motivation: almost 40 years of observation, work and cooperation with investors, designers, contractors, manufacturers, distributors, authorities directly in [...]

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• Corrosion Initiation Period for Stainless Steel Reinforcement in Concrete Structures

  L. Abreu Araujo, I. Helices Arcila, N. Rebolledo Ramos, J. E. Torres Martín, S. Chinchón-Payá, J. Sánchez Montero, B. B. Raggiotti, V. Matres

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  The designed service life of reinforced concrete structure is often shortened when disposed in aggressive environments. In certain situations, stainless steel reinforcement may be an appropriate replacement to attain a higher level of durability. This paper presents the findings of an experimental study conducted to determine the critical chloride threshold for two types of stainless steel reinforcement (UNS S40977 and UNS S32001). For each steel grade, a prediction model for the corrosion initiation period was obtained, applying the electrochemical test data in a Monte Carlo analysis. Results show that if the initiation period is taken as the corresponding for a 7% corrosion probability, that will occur at 6.5 years of age for carbon steel and over 150 years for UNS S32001 stainless steel.

  Abstract
  The designed service life of reinforced concrete structure is often shortened when disposed in aggressive environments. In certain situations, stainless steel reinforcement [...]

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• Assessing Different Insulation Strategies for Historic Wooden Facades Based on Modeled Mold Growth Risk

  M. Zhao, H. M. Künzel

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Wood makes up a considerable proportion of applied construction materials in Chinese historic building envelopes. With increasing awareness of preserving historic heritage by promoting their further use and occupation, it becomes necessary to improve the current poor indoor thermal environment in abundantly existing historic buildings in southern China. One common approach for improvement is to install insulation materials on historic building envelopes, which can additionally improve their sustainability by reducing buildings’ energy demand for heating and cooling. However, this measure of deep retrofits requires cautious design regarding the hygrothermal performance of insulated wooden facades, since an improper construction way would lead to mold growth in wooden materials, causing problems of durability and indoor hygiene. Therefore, this study investigates the mold growth risk of different insulation systems for historic wooden facades in the Chinese HotSummer-Cold-Winter zone based on a parameter study. The considered parameters are internal and external insulation systems, vapor-open (mineral wool) and vapor-tight (XPS) insulation materials, a U-value of 0.8 W/(m²K) as well as a lower U-value of 0.24 W/(m²K) for the insulated walls, different capabilities and positions of an additional vapor control layer, as well as different cooling/dehumidification conditions in the warm period of a year. The hygrothermal performance of insulated wooden facades is simulated with WUFI®Plus software, while the mold growth risk is assessed with mold index values of the Viitanen mold model. The results of this paper will provide a quantitative evaluation of different insulation strategies for historic buildings in southern China regarding the mold growth risk in wooden materials, which is of essential importance for the durability of construction materials. This study can also give instructions for deeply retrofitting wooden historic buildings in China.

  Abstract
  Wood makes up a considerable proportion of applied construction materials in Chinese historic building envelopes. With increasing awareness of preserving historic heritage [...]

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• A Dose-response Approach for Predicting Frost Damage with Hygrothermal Simulations

  K. Janssens, C. Feng, V. Marincioni, N. Van Den Bossche

  DBMC 2023.

  
  

  Abstract

  Freeze-thaw degradation is one of the most prominent degradation risks of brick facades. Considering the difficulties of repairing freeze-thaw damage without replacing the materials, which may not always be an option due to heritage values, it is highly important to quantify the risk of frost damage in advance. Hygrothermal simulations have proven to be a valuable tool to assess the risk of deterioration of building facades. The performance criterion method generally applied today quantifies the number of critical freeze-thaw cycles (FTCcrit) as described by Mensinga et al (2010). This method is based on frost resistance tests that adopt high moisture contents and extremely low frost temperatures. However, building facades often experience milder frost temperatures and lower moisture contents rather than these extreme conditions. A journal article published by Feng et al. (2019) investigated the relationship of frost damage with temperature and moisture content, which enables a dose-response approach that goes beyond the existing threshold level criteria. The experimental study tested freezing temperatures from -2°C to -20°C and moisture saturation degrees from 0.1 to 1.0. This paper studies freeze-thaw risk using this advanced approach, and investigates whether the dose-response approach can lead to a clarification at what number of FTCcrit actual deterioration occurs and how this can be predicted by the use of hygrothermal simulations. Thereby, an attempt is made to derive a more representative performance criterion for frost damage.

  Abstract
  Freeze-thaw degradation is one of the most prominent degradation risks of brick facades. Considering the difficulties of repairing freeze-thaw damage without replacing the [...]

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