Documents published in Scipedia

• Preliminary tests on the UAV-enabled installation of wireless sensors for monitoring inaccessible slopes

  J. Gili*, M. Janeras, V. Salinas, O. Pedraza, A. Lluch, R. Carballo

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Although remote sensing techniques (TLS, DPS) are useful for monitoring wide areas with diffuse hazard, the deployment of sensors in contact with the ground (slopes, cliffs, rock blocks) is mandatory when a focused mechanism is underway. So far, most of the so-called ‘geotechnical sensors’ (tiltmeters, jointmeters, stress sensors), and some surveying systems or accessories (like prisms, targets, GNSS receivers), must be installed manually on the landslide body. Furthermore, in some cases cables for the power supply and data collection are needed. Besides the technical difficulties, in some scenarios this installation phase may imply a high risk for the operators. To overcome this issue, in the contribution we present some test carried out with wireless sensors installed by means of Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Concretely, we deployed several wireless precision tiltmeters, able to acquire several measures per minute, and with LOng-RAnge communication capability. The experiments were developed in the frame of a risk mitigation project leaded by the ICGC in the Montserrat massif (near Barcelona, Spain), an area of paramount geomechanical and societal interest. There, the targeted instability mechanisms are medium and large rockfalls. The preliminary tests show that the installation of sensors with UAV can be of great help in the aforementioned situations. The UAV-enabled deployment method should be considered to speed up the availability of real time monitoring data.

  Abstract
  Although remote sensing techniques (TLS, DPS) are useful for monitoring wide areas with diffuse hazard, the deployment of sensors in contact with the ground (slopes, cliffs, [...]

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• Using Combined Geotechnical and Geophysical Methods for Site Characterization of Ultra-Shallow Submerged Sites

  N. Stark*, M. Gardner, A. Lemnitzer

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Ultra-shallow underwater environments (average water depth ≲ 1 meters) in rivers, estuaries, and coastal zones represent the transition between water bodies and landmasses relevant for many engineering applications including utilities and transportation, habitat monitoring and restoration, and resilience to extreme flood and coastal storm events. With climatic shifts and an increased occurrence of extreme events, ultra-shallow underwater environments and inundation zones receive increasing attention. However, the increasing need for data revealed current limitations in safe accessibility and survey methodologies suitable for those conditions. Adaptation of geotechnical testing methods such as cone penetrometer testing and free fall penetrometer testing enable updated geotechnical testing capabilities, but these methods still require physical access to the measuring site which may be compromised by significant flow conditions, unknown debris and bottom conditions, limitations in access points and time, and combinations thereof. Remote sensing using optic sensors from unmanned aerial vehicles as well as from satellites offer strategies of soil classification in a rapid manner and without need for physical access if water conditions are clear. Advances in geoacoustic surveying, particularly regarding the use of sonars in ultra-shallow environments offers seabed surveying even in murky waters. Fusing geoacoustic and/or optic data with geotechnical point measurements enables the optimization of data collection in ultrashallow underwater environments or inundation zones in a safe and efficient manner, contributing also to available data from these environments to advance our understanding of soil mechanics in inundation zones and ultra-shallow waters. Here, an overview of available methods and recent advances in methodologies is presented supported by case studies including riverine and coastal environments.

  Abstract
  Ultra-shallow underwater environments (average water depth ≲ 1 meters) in rivers, estuaries, and coastal zones represent the transition between water bodies and landmasses [...]

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• Ambient Seismic Noise Imaging for Tailings Storage Facilities Monitoring: a Benchmark between Accelerometers and DAS

  L. Vivin*, C. Vulpe, L. McNab, A. Fourie, J. Boshoff, C. Cai, T. Allemand, T. Bardainne, J. Lepine, N. Lester

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Recent examples of tailings dam failure remind us how the monitoring of such sites is important. One major factor affecting the stability of tailings storage facilities (TSFs) is the presence and movement of water within the facility. Dam failures are often caused by seepage or the presence of weak layers within the tailings dam or the foundation soil. Thus, monitoring for the presence or movement of water within TSFs is becoming increasingly important, and solutions for permanent, non-intrusive and cost-effective monitoring of dams are a major challenge. One such solution is represented by geophysical imaging techniques such as ambient seismic noise interferometry. Through a research project, a nodal network system of accelerometer sensors was installed in a dense and random array on a TSF embankment wall at an Australian mine. Simultaneously, a fiber optic cable was deployed in a trench at the top of the TSF. Ambient seismic noise was recorded over a few weeks using the nodal network and with the fiber optic cable over several months using Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) technology. Following data acquisition, benchmarking passive seismic imaging from the accelerometer network and the DAS system was conducted to evaluate the DAS capabilities for long-term TSF monitoring.

  Abstract
  Recent examples of tailings dam failure remind us how the monitoring of such sites is important. One major factor affecting the stability of tailings storage facilities (TSFs) [...]

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• Combining Remote Sensing Techniques to Optimize Digital Surface Models for Change Detection – A Case Study at a Pit Wall in the Canadian Cordillera

  T. Gierc*, R. Macciotta, F. Liu

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Slope monitoring is vital for open pit mines during operations and nearing closure where pit wall instabilities are present. Change detection using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) has become part of the state of practice for collecting accurate measurements with extensive spatial coverage. The approach can detect displacements associated with global slope movement, as well as surficial occurrences such as rockfalls and sloughs. However, TLS acquisition quality is vulnerable to atmospheric interference and reflectivity of the target materials. In this regard, the high-density surface information obtained from TLS could be complemented with other, less detailed, remote sensing information in order to construct a complete surface model. Such an approach, however, requires a systematic workflow and a means to calculate surface model reliability. The subject of this study is an unstable pit wall at an open pit coal mine transitioning to closure. The site is located in the Canadian Cordillera, in a setting with intermittent fog and cloud cover, wildfire haze, and seepage within the slope face and toe. Insufficient TLS data can be obtained in local areas of the slope impacted by these conditions, as well as in shadowed areas on the benches above the TLS base elevation. Aerial photogrammetry was undertaken using UAV and combined with the TLS scan to generate a representative surface model. This paper presents a methodology for registration improvement between the TLS and UAV photogrammetry clouds, and evaluation of the combined surface using concepts of Limit of Detection (LOD) adopted from change detection techniques.

  Abstract
  Slope monitoring is vital for open pit mines during operations and nearing closure where pit wall instabilities are present. Change detection using terrestrial laser scanning [...]

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• Piezometers: a very important instrument to which we need to pay more attention

  J. Raventos*

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Piezometers are instruments that can produce high-quality information if suitable and effective installation and monitoring procedures are followed. In order to minimise errors and optimise quality of the obtained information, we must pay attention when prescribing the type of piezometer and its installation, as highlighted in the ISO/EN18674 standards. The use of piezometers as a geotechnical instrument is a commodity. This paper aims to exemplify how the use of piezometers can be optimised and how the most common errors can be avoided.

  Abstract
  Piezometers are instruments that can produce high-quality information if suitable and effective installation and monitoring procedures are followed. In order to minimise errors [...]

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• Revealing Structures below Vegetation using UAV-BASED LIDAR

  M. Horn*, M. Seitz

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  LiDAR has been used for the last decade to create digital terrain models using Airborne Laser Scans (ALS) with about 10 points per square metre, mainly depending on flight altitude and speed. The data is used to produce elevation maps or digital surface models, calculate volumes and analyse the Earth's surface or objects above it. However, the resolution and elevation accuracy of about ± 0.3 m means that calculations are only estimates and ground features may not be identified. Unmanned aerial vehicle based LiDAR systems have some advantages over ALS data. Their lower altitude and speed allow the scanner to generate more points per square metre than an ALS. The more laser beams the scanner emits into the same area, the more beams pass through the vegetation and generate more points on the ground or other objects. This increases the level of detail in the digital terrain model. Reference points are another way of increasing the accuracy of the LiDAR scan. These points are placed within the survey area and have known coordinates and elevations to control and fit the result of the LiDAR scan to the coordinate system of the reference points. This data can be used for higher accuracy volume calculations and changes in the terrain structure (e.g. geological changes). Because the terrain is mapped at a high level of detail, it can also be used in explosive ordnance disposal to reveal hidden features such as trenches or bomb craters that may cause a problem for the project.

  Abstract
  LiDAR has been used for the last decade to create digital terrain models using Airborne Laser Scans (ALS) with about 10 points per square metre, mainly depending on flight [...]

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• Event detection system for monitoring the cliff retreat and undermining of Castellfollit de la Roca village

  M. Navarro*, M. Janeras, T. Carbonell, J. Pérez

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Castellfollit de la Roca village (Catalonia, NE of Spain) stands on top of a basaltic cliff affected by rockfalls that are causing the retreat of the slope and the risk of undermining the buildings. So far, remote sensing techniques have been applied. They have detected centimetric precursory movements of toppling in basaltic columns, and unnoticed rockfalls of tiny volume as well. However, rockfalls of remarkable magnitude caused by other mechanisms have occurred at the foundation level of some houses, without any precursor movement detected by remote sensing techniques. In order to gather information from these events, a priority sector has been instrumented with a geotechnical network of crackmeters, tiltmeters and thermistors to monitor the thermo-mechanical behavior of the rock mass. Readings from the sensors have been automated through a wireless network based on Loadsensing nodes and gateway connected by LoRa technology. Tiltmeters are all-in-one devices of sensor and logger operating in dynamic mode. This system enables the detection of events and sending alert messages in real time. To receive reliable alerts for risk management, suitable thresholds have to be defined, based on the knowledge of the studied phenomena at the particular scenario. This paper presents the system set up and the threshold analysis through the observation of the cliff behavior on the daily and seasonal cycles registered during the first year of operation.

  Abstract
  Castellfollit de la Roca village (Catalonia, NE of Spain) stands on top of a basaltic cliff affected by rockfalls that are causing the retreat of the slope and the risk of [...]

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• In-situ Characterization of Strength and Small-strain Stiffness in a Weathered Mudstone Profile

  K. Briggs*, Y. Trinidad Gonzalez, G. Meijer, W. Powrie, N. Sartain, S. Butler

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  The weathering profile in mudstone outcrops can range from weathered clay to unweathered mudstone. The strength and small-strain stiffness of these materials, and of stiff clays and weak rocks in general, is critical to the design of geotechnical structures. Monitoring data and ground investigation data were gathered during the construction of a trial embankment founded on weathered, Jurassic-aged mudstone, for the HS2 high-speed railway project (UK). These data included outputs from in-situ downhole geophysical tests and extensometers at the embankment location. These were compared to ground investigation data from the wider mudstone outcrop over an 18.2 km stretch of the route. The installation of extensometers prior to loading by the embankment construction enabled the measurement of in-situ strains for a range of small and medium strains. It was therefore possible to characterise the stress-strain behaviour of the individual layers within the ground profile. The results showed that stiff clays derived from weathered mudstone at shallow depth (300 kPa) and higher maximum stiffness than the overlying clay. Both the strength and stiffness profiles showed a transition zone between the weathered clay and the unweathered mudstone. This zone included a partially weathered mudstone that had the visual appearance and index properties of a mudstone, but the strength of a stiff clay (i.e. τu < 300 kPa).

  Abstract
  The weathering profile in mudstone outcrops can range from weathered clay to unweathered mudstone. The strength and small-strain stiffness of these materials, and of stiff [...]

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• Installation of Load Cells in Ground Anchors

  E. Aceñero, T. Laqué*, Ó. Pérez

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Load cells are used to measure tension (kN, tonne-force) in ground anchors and tendons in pre- or post-tensioned structures. Before installing and commissioning, it is strictly necessary to know the characteristics of the anchors to control as well as the installation and service scenery. Although it may look a simple assignment, there are several issues before supplying and installing a load cell: geometry of the anchor head, measurement range, expected precision, type of output signal and data transmission, temperature variations in the structure, and foreseen service life. The sort of tensioning jack and load steps are additional, unavoidable points to consider. By installing a load cell on a tieback, this is transformed into a measurement element, helping to understand the performance of the anchor as well as that of the surrounding area, medium- and long-term. To ensure load cells’ values are correct, we must take extra care with installation. Otherwise, the outcome will be flawed, and it will lead to erroneous conclusions and actions, with the subsequent increase in risk and money loss. In this paper, we share our experience regarding design, installation, and follow-up of load cells as elements to monitor the behaviour of anchored and post-tensioned structures and their area of influence

  Abstract
  Load cells are used to measure tension (kN, tonne-force) in ground anchors and tendons in pre- or post-tensioned structures. Before installing and commissioning, it is strictly [...]

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• A Soil Base Model of Adjacent Various Story Structures

  O. Samorodov, S. Tabachnikov*

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  The paper proposes an improved soil base model in the form of a continuous layer of finite distribution capability to simulate and calculate adjacent multistory structures in the base - foundations - structures system using powerful calculation packages such as SOFiSTiK, ABAQUS, PLAXIS, SCAD, Lira and others. The improved model considers the parameters of the stress-strain properties of the soils of the bases, the geometric profile taking account of the distribution capability of the base and different boundary conditions, but differs from the existing models in that it has a stepped geometric profile at the lower boundary of the model because of different compressible layer depths under each foundation of the structures. The use of this model improves the accuracy of simulating a soil base for large-sized foundations of adjacent structures to obtain reliable results of the stress-strain state of the base - foundations - structures system. An example demonstrates how to simulate and calculate raft foundations of a two-section multistory building in the base - foundations - structures system that interacts with an improved soil base model (linear strains of soils under loads are considered here) with reference to different numbers of stories of the sections. The numerical study results show on a specific calculation example that considering different compressible layers depths in the model under differently loaded foundations results in an increase in moment forces of up to 65% as compared with simulating the whole compressible layer, which may lead to the disruption of large-sized raft foundations.

  Abstract
  The paper proposes an improved soil base model in the form of a continuous layer of finite distribution capability to simulate and calculate adjacent multistory structures [...]

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