Scipedia: Documents published in 2020

On the discrete constitutive models induced by strong discontinuity kinematics and continuum constitutive equations

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 17:23:50 +0200

On the basis of continuum constitutive models (stress vs. strain), the introduction of strong discontinuity kinematics (considering jumps in the displacement fields across a discontinuity interface) induces projected discrete constitutive models (traction-displacement jumps) in a consistent manner. Therefore, this projection provides possible links between the classical continuum strain-localization analysis and the non-linear (decohesive) fracture mechanics techniques. The strong discontinuity analysis shows that (bandwidth based) regularization of the hardening/softening parameter is the crucial modification to be done on the continuum model to achieve such a projection, and it also provides the strong discontinuity conditions that set restrictions on the stress state compatible with bifurcations in a strong discontinuity format. The methodology is illustrated on the basis of two classical families of non-linear constitutive models (scalar continuum damage and elasto-plasticity) for which the corresponding discrete constitutive models and the strong discontinuity conditions are derived

Modelling strong discontinuities in solid mechanics via strain softening constitutive equations. Part II: Numerical simulation

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 16:43:12 +0200

On the basis of the strong discontinuity analysis of standard local stress–strain constitutive equations, a finite element framework for the simulation of strong discontinuities, which belongs to the family of assumed enhanced strain methods, is presented. Taking the standard linear triangle as the underlying element, an additional incompatible mode leads to the formulation of an enriched strain field which is shown to be able to appropriately capture strong discontinuities. The presented numerical simulations show that mesh size and mesh alignment dependencies can be completely removed

Modelling strong discontinuities in solid mechanics via strain softening constitutive equations. Part I: fundamentals

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 16:27:25 +0200

The paper addresses some fundamental aspects about the use of standard constitutive equations to model strong discontinuities (cracks, shear bands, slip lines, etc.) in solid mechanics analyzes. The strong discontinuity analysis is introduced as a basic tool to derive a general framework, in which different families of constitutive equations can be considered, that allows to extract some outstanding aspects of the intended analysis. In particular, a link between continuum and discrete approaches to the strain localization phenomena is obtained. Applications to standard continuum damage and elastoplastic constitutive equations are presented. Relevant aspects to be considered in the numerical simulation of the problem (tackled in Part 2 of the work) are also presented

Continuum modelling of strong discontinuities in solid mechanics using damage models

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 16:18:34 +0200

Numerical simulation of strong discontinuities by using standard stress-strain constitutive equations including strain-softening is addressed. The concept of strong discontinuity analysis is introduced and driven, as a matter of example, into a standard continuum damage model. Then, the relevant features that make the constitutive equation compatible with the appearance of strong discontinuities are extracted. Those features are used in the design of a specific finite element approach to the strong discontinuity problem which is placed in the framework of the assumed enhanced strain methods. Numerical simulations show that mesh size and mesh alignment dependencies, typical of some continuum approaches, can be removed.

An analysis of strong discontinuities induced by strain-softening in rate-independent inelastic solids

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 15:37:52 +0200

Ket qualitative features of solutions exhibiting strong discontinuities in rate-independent inelastic solids are identified and exploited in the design of a new class of finite element approximations. The analysis shows that the softening law must be re-interpreted in a distributional sense for the continuum solutions to make mathematical sense and provides a precise physical interpretation to the softening modulus. These results are verified by numerical simulations employing a regularized discontinuous finite element method which circumvent the strong mesh-dependence exhibited by conventional methods, without resorting to viscosity or introducing additional ad-hoc parameters. The analysis is extended to a new class of anisotropic rate-independent damage models for brittle materials

A consistent characteristic length for smeared cracking models

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 14:20:54 +0200

A numerical scheme for crack modelling by means of continuous displacement fields is presented. In two-dimensional problems a crack is modelled as a limiting case of two singular lines (with continuous displacements, but discontinuous displacement gradients across them) which tend to coincide with each other. An analysis of the energy dissipated inside the band bounded by both lines allows one to obtain an expression for the characteristic length as the ratio between the energy dissipated per unit surface area (fracture energy) and the energy dissipated per unit volume (specific energy) at a point. The application of these mathematical expressions to the finite element discretized medium allow one to obtain a general spatial and directional expression for the characteristic length which guarantees the objectivity of the results with respect to the size of the finite element mesh. The numerical results presented show the reliability of the proposed expressions.

SIMP-ALL: a generalized SIMP method based on the topological derivative concept

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 13:13:05 +0200

Topology optimization has emerged in the last years as a promising research fieldwith a wide range of applications. One of the most successful approaches, theSIMP method, is based on regularizing the problem and proposing a penaliza-tion interpolation function. In this work, we propose an alternative interpolationfunction, the SIMP-ALL method that is based on the topological derivative con-cept. First, we show the strong relation in plane linear elasticity between theHashin-Shtrikman (H-S) bounds and the topological derivative, providing anew interpretation of the last one. Then, we show that the SIMP-ALL interpo-lation remains always in between the H-S bounds regardless the materials tobe interpolated. This result allows us to interpret intermediate values as realmicrostructures. Finally, we verify numerically this result and we show the con-venience of the proposed SIMP-ALL interpolation for obtaining auto-penalizedoptimal design in a wider range of cases. A MATLAB code of the SIMP-ALLinterpolation function is also provided

A consistent relaxation of optimal design problems for coupling shape and topological derivatives

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 11:59:27 +0200

In this article, we introduce and analyze a general procedure for approximating a ‘black and white’ shape and topology optimization problem with a density optimization problem, allowing for the presence of ‘grayscale’ regions. Our construction relies on a regularizing operator for smearing the characteristic functions involved in the exact optimization problem, and on an interpolation scheme, which endows the intermediate density regions with fictitious material properties. Under mild hypotheses on the smoothing operator and on the interpolation scheme, we prove that the features of the approximate density optimization problem (material properties, objective function, etc.) converge to their exact counterparts as the smoothing parameter vanishes. In particular, the gradient of the approximate objective functional with respect to the density function converges to either the shape or the topological derivative of the exact objective. These results shed new light on the connections between these two different notions of sensitivities for functions of the domain, and they give rise to different numerical algorithms which are illustrated by several experiments

Two-scale topology optimization in computational material design: an integrated approach

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 11:08:41 +0200

The Domain Interface Method (DIM) is extended in this contribution for the case of mixed fields as encountered in multiphysics problems. The essence of the non-conforming domain decomposition technique consists in a discretization of a fictitious zero-thickness interface as in the original methodology and continuity of the solution fields across the domains is satisfied by incorporating the corresponding Lagrange Multipliers. The multifield DIM inherits the advantages of its irreducible version in the sense that the connections between non-matching meshes, with possible geometrically non-conforming interfaces, is accounted by the automatic Delaunay interface discretization without considering master and slave surfaces or intermediate surface projections as done in many established techniques, e.g. mortar methods. The multifield enhancement identifies the Lagrange multiplier field and incorporates its contribution in the weak variational form accounting for the corresponding consistent stabilization term based on a Nitsche method. This type of constraint enforcement circumvents the appearance of instabilities when the Ladyzhenskaya–Babuška–Brezzi (LBB) condition is not fulfilled by the chosen discretization. The domain decomposition framework is assessed in a large deformation setting for mixed displacement/pressure formulations and coupled thermomechanical problems. The continuity of the mixed field is studied in well selected benchmark problems for both mixed formulations and the objectivity of the response is compared to reference monolithic solutions. Results suggest that the presented strategy shows sufficient potential to be a valuable tool in situations where the evolving physics at particular domains require the use of different spatial discretizations or field interpolations.

Dimensional hyper-reduction of nonlinear finite element models via empirical cubature

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 10:30:54 +0200

We present a general framework for the dimensional reduction, in terms of number of degrees of freedom as well as number of integration points (“hyper-reduction”), of nonlinear parameterized finite element (FE) models. The reduction process is divided into two sequential stages. The first stage consists in a common Galerkin projection onto a reduced-order space, as well as in the condensation of boundary conditions and external forces. For the second stage (reduction in number of integration points), we present a novel cubature scheme that efficiently determines optimal points and associated positive weights so that the error in integrating reduced internal forces is minimized. The distinguishing features of the proposed method are: (1) The minimization problem is posed in terms of orthogonal basis vector (obtained via a partitioned Singular Value Decomposition) rather that in terms of snapshots of the integrand. (2) The volume of the domain is exactly integrated. (3) The selection algorithm need not solve in all iterations a nonnegative least-squares problem to force the positiveness of the weights. Furthermore, we show that the proposed method converges to the absolute minimum (zero integration error) when the number of selected points is equal to the number of internal force modes included in the objective function. We illustrate this model reduction methodology by two nonlinear, structural examples (quasi-static bending and resonant vibration of elastoplastic composite plates). In both examples, the number of integration points is reduced three order of magnitudes (with respect to FE analyses) without significantly sacrificing accuracy

Topological sensitivity analysis in heterogeneous anisotropic elasticity problem: theoretical and computational aspects

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 06 May 2020 10:03:36 +0200

The topological sensitivity analysis for the heterogeneous and anisotropic elasticity problem in two-dimensions is performed in this work. The main result of the paper is an analytical closed-form of the topological derivative for the total potential energy of the problem. This derivative displays the sensitivity of the cost functional (the energy in this case) when a small singular perturbation is introduced in an arbitrary point of the domain. In this case, we consider a small disc with a completely different elastic material. Full mathematical justification for the derived formula, and derivations of precise estimates for the remainders of the topological asymptotic expansion are provided. Finally, the influence of the heterogeneity and anisotropy is shown through some numerical examples of structural topology optimization

Computing the Wave-Kernel Matrix Functions

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 16:10:16 +0200

We derive an algorithm for computing the wave-kernel functions cosh \surd A and sinhc\surd A for an arbitrary square matrix A, where sinhcz = sinh(z)/z. The algorithm is based on Pad\'e approximation and the use of double angle formulas. We show that the backward error of any approximation to cosh \surd A can be explicitly expressed in terms of a hypergeometric function. To bound the backward error we derive and exploit a new bound for \| Ak\| 1/k that is sharper than one previously obtained by Al-Mohy and Higham [SIAM J. Matrix Anal. Appl., 31 (2009), pp. 970-- 989]. The amount of scaling and the degree of the Pad\'e approximant are chosen to minimize the computational cost subject to achieving backward stability for cosh \surd A in exact arithmetic. Numerical experiments show that the algorithm behaves in a forward stable manner in floating-point arithmetic and is superior in this respect to the general purpose Schur--Parlett algorithm applied to these functions.

Energy efficiency, indoor thermal comfort and influence of user habits in retrofitting of social housing blocks: Case study in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 15:38:13 +0200

The Mediterranean seaside cities like the towns placed at the Metropolitan region of Barcelona have soft winters and variable summers which change from hot to very hot. Historically, summer comfort in dwellings was reached through passive cooling strategies and reducing the activity of the citizens during the hottest hours (the siesta). At the beginning of the 20th and until the building regulations appear, most of the constructed buildings were designed without any energy saving criteria, therefore, summer and winter passive were scrapped.

L'ús actual de l'energia solar. Aplicacions als edificis

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 15:26:25 +0200

Monitoring and modelling energy efficiency of municipal public buildings: case study in Catalonia region

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 15:10:21 +0200

Energy efficiency benchmarking can be used to monitor changes in the overall efficiency of buildings. Benchmarking models, based on energy efficiency indicators, are valuable tools for both public and private stakeholders because they allow an improvement in the building energy management. For the last decade, some governments have used these tools to define their building regulations (Santamouris, M., et al., 2005. Energy performance of residential buildings book. UK: James and James/Earthscan. ISBN: 1-902916-49-2, Chung, W., Hui, Y.V., and Miu Lam, Y., 2006. Benchmarking the energy efficiency of commercial buildings. Applied Energy, 83, 1–14). This paper tries to go further, integrating a benchmarking and a modelling process, into the same energy efficiency analysis. The connections between the energy use intensities (EUIs) and the characteristic building factors are modelled using neural network techniques. The process is divided into two stages: the data acquisition stage and the benchmarking and modelling stage. The benchmarking and modelling stage is focused on the adjustment of these EUIs within the climatic conditions (with a severity climate index method) and the development of a prediction model for calculating the relationship between these climate-adjusted EUIs and the significant factors of a building. In order to validate this methodology, an application to schools in Catalonia is presented. Additionally, the use of the artificial neural network (ANN) benchmark model for predicting potential energy savings from retrofit projects was evaluated. Some of the input variables were modified to reflect potential energy savings from a retrofit project, and the new input set was simulated with the ANN model. The preliminary results show that the developed ANN model can be used to predict energy savings from retrofit projects

Design methodology for low cost tubular digesters

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 14:18:03 +0200

The aim of this paper is to present a novel, universal, methodology for the design of low cost tubular digesters. This method improves on the established methodology by avoiding assumptions that tend to reduce the final hydraulic retention time (HRT) of digesters once installed. This work recommends designing the digester using trench cross-sectional area and proposes an optimization of the trench dimensions with respect to the angle of the walls and the relationship between the length of the biogas bell and the top width of the trench. The influence of the biogas pressure is considered. A simple geometrical analysis is presented that, by parameterization, can be applied in a wide range of situations.

An outdoor Test Reference Environment for double skin applications of Building Integrated PhotoVoltaic Systems

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 14:01:14 +0200

This article presents and discusses an outdoor Test Reference Environment (TRE) for double skin applications of Building Integrated PhotoVoltaic (BIPV) Systems.

From the experience gained during the past 20 years in several EC research projects, an experimental tested design for a common Test Reference Environment is proposed. This outdoor test set-up allows the assessment of experimental data for electrical and thermal performance evaluation of photovoltaic systems integrated as double skin applications in the building envelope. The specific design of the Test Reference Environment makes it possible to study in a harmonised way through electrical and thermal energy flow analysis, the impact of different materials for PV modules and construction design of building envelopes. The energy balance for BIPV double skin applications is presented as well.

The experimental data has been used for validation of modelling work by several academic groups which has resulted in an improved knowledge on the heat transfer, in particular the convective heat exchange coefficient for the specific double skin boundary conditions.

Modelling the heat dynamics of a monitored Test Reference Environment for Building Integrated Photovoltaic systems using stochastic differential equations

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 13:41:31 +0200

This paper deals with grey-box modelling of the energy transfer of a double skin Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) system. Grey-box models are based on a combination of prior physical knowledge and statistics, which enable identification of the unknown parameters in the system and accurate prediction of the most influential variables. The experimental data originates from tests carried out with an air-based BIPV system installed in a Test Reference Environment. BIPV systems represent an interesting application for achieving the requirements of the EU EPBD Directive. Indeed, these systems could reduce the ventilation thermal losses of the building by pre-heating the fresh air. Furthermore, by decreasing PV module temperature, the ventilation air heat extraction can simultaneously increase electrical and thermal energy production of the building. A correct prediction of the PV module temperature and heat transfer coefficients is fundamental in order to improve the thermo-electrical production.

The considered grey-box models are composed of a set of continuous time stochastic differential equations, holding the physical description of the system, combined with a set of discrete time measurement equations, which represent the data driven part.

In the present work, both one-state and two-state non-linear grey-box models are considered. In order to validate the results, the residuals are analysed for white-noise properties.

Approaches to evaluate building energy performance from daily consumption data considering dynamic and solar gain effects

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 13:29:56 +0200

A method for determining the total heat loss coefficient, the effective heat capacity and the net solar gain of a building is presented. The method uses a linear regressions approach based on daily energy consumption combined with readily available meteorological data.

The effective heat capacity of the building is evaluated by correlating the energy consumption and outdoor temperature changes from the previous day. The net solar gain of the building is assessed by analysing the data separated into groups by amount of daily solar irradiation. Corrected total heat loss coefficient is determined by explicitly including in the building's energy balance the accumulated heat and the solar gain.

The method has been applied to the analysis of nine public buildings in Spain. An improvement of the estimated heat loss coefficient due to the corrections is observed. The effective heat capacity normalised by the building area is shown to be a useful indicator of the building operation, detecting continuous or intermittent heating.

The estimated parameters in this study can enable specific benchmarking, detecting opportunities for energy savings and evaluating their potential. With the increasing implementation of smart metering technologies, the method is promising for application to the analysis of large building stocks.

Numerical analysis of the most appropriate heat transfer correlations for free ventilated double skin photovoltaic façades

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 13:18:35 +0200

Double skin façades with photovoltaic integrated systems are building components which combine functions of the building envelope with electricity and thermal energy generation. The heat transfer modelling of these components, especially under free convection situations, raises a high complexity and is one of the main drawbacks for a massive dissemination of this technology. Many attempts to fill this gap have been undertaken and some mathematical correlations allowing evaluating average Nusselt numbers and air mass flow rate have been obtained in the last decades. However, very few studies faced a detailed analysis of the valid range of these mathematical expressions and of the restrictions entailed. This paper introduces a methodology to analyse the valid range of the existing mathematical correlations for the convective heat transfer coefficients and for the air mass flow rate in laminar and transition to turbulent free convection, and provides an evaluation of the effect of the asymmetry of the wall boundary conditions. A specific numerical code, based on a stabilized finite element formulation (FEM), is used to solve the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations within the air gap and to determine the accuracy of the existing heat transfer correlations. This evaluation was preceded by an extensive bibliographic research as well as a detailed validation of the physical and numerical hypothesis adopted in the finite element code.

Evaluation of a multi-stage guided search approach for the calibration of building energy simulation models

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 12:48:22 +0200

This paper is focused on increasing the knowledge on methods for calibrating BES models and to get more insights of different approaches for the optimization of the calibration process. The paper will be centred in the evaluation of a multistage guided search approach. It defines an iterative optimization procedure which starts with the assignment of probabilistic density functions to the unknown parameters, followed by a random sampling and running batch of simulations. It then finishes with an iterative uncertainty and sensitivity analysis combined with a re-assignment of the ranges of variation of the strong parameters. The procedure converges when no new influencing parameters are found. This method is applied to a real case study consisting of an unoccupied office building located in Lleida (Spain). The measured indoor temperature has been used to determine the uncertainty and precision of the method. The effect of the size of the sampling, the number of iterations and the parameters of the global sensitivity method are analyzed in detail. The results of this paper exemplify the degree of accuracy of multistage guided search approaches, and illustrate the reasons how these analyses can contribute to the improvement of more refined calibration methods.

Development of a dynamic model for natural ventilated photovoltaic components and of a data driven approach to validate and identify the model parameters

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 11:56:33 +0200

In the development of dynamic models for the energy performance evaluation of building integrated natural ventilated PV components there are still many open questions regarding the uncertainty of the estimated parameters of the models. Traditionally, the dynamic models for these complex components are derived from the heat transfer balance equations, and the unknown heat transfer coefficients (convection and radiation), the solar properties of the materials or the pressure coefficients for the air mass flow rate balance, are assigned based on literature or on manufacturer prescriptions. However, there is a lack of systematic methods able to validate the simulation outputs with the measured data, taking into consideration the uncertainty of the parameters and their effect over the results. This research is focused on the development of a dynamic simulation model for a PV ventilated component, and on the application of a data-driven iterative approach to identify the unknown parameters, to evaluate their influence in the simulation outputs and finally, to determine the deviations of the simulations outputs against the measured data. During the identification process, 43 unknown parameters are detected and 13 of them are categorized as strong parameters. The implemented data driven approach is able to achieve high goodness of fit with the measured data and it is recommended to analyses which aim at evaluating the influence of some component parameters or the thermal and electrical energy produced by these natural ventilated PV components.

Influencing factors in energy use of housing blocks: a new methodology, based on clustering and energy simulations, for decision making in energy refurbishment projects

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 11:31:27 +0200

In recent years, big efforts have been dedicated to identify which are the factors with highest influence in the energy consumption of residential buildings. These factors include aspects such as weather dependence, user behaviour, socio-economic situation, type of the energy installations and typology of buildings. The high number of factors increases the complexity of analysis and leads to a lack of confidence in the results of the energy simulation analysis. This fact grows when we move one step up and perform global analysis of blocks of buildings. The aim of this study is to report a new methodology for the assessment of the energy performance of large groups of buildings when considering the real use of energy. We combine two clustering methods, Generative Topographic Mapping and k-means, to obtain reference dwellings that can be considered as representative of the different energy patterns and energy systems of the neighbourhood. Then, simulation of energy demand and indoor temperature against the monitored comfort conditions in a short period is performed to obtain end use load disaggregation. This methodology was applied in a district at Terrassa City (Spain), and six reference dwellings were selected. Results showed that the method was able to identify the main patterns and provide occupants with feasible recommendations so that they can make required decisions at neighbourhood level. Moreover, given that the proposed method is based on the comparison with similar buildings, it could motivate building occupants to implement community improvement actions, as well as to modify their behaviour.

Hidden Markov Models for indirect classification of occupant behaviour

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 10:55:23 +0200

Even for similar residential buildings, a huge variability in the energy consumption can be observed. This variability is mainly due to the different behaviours of the occupants and this impacts the thermal (temperature setting, window opening, etc.) as well as the electrical (appliances, TV, computer, etc.) consumption.

It is very seldom to find direct observations of occupant presence and behaviour in residential buildings. However, given the increasing use of smart metering, the opportunity and potential for indirect observation and classification of occupants’ behaviour is possible. This paper focuses on the use of Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) to create methods for indirect observations and characterisation of occupant behaviour.

By applying homogeneous HMMs on the electricity consumption of fourteen apartments, three states describing the data were found suitable. The most likely sequence of states was determined (global decoding). From reconstruction of the states, dependencies like ambient air temperature were investigated. Combined with an occupant survey, this was used to classify/interpret the states as (1) absent or asleep, (2) home, medium consumption and (3) home, high consumption. From the global decoding, the average probability profiles with respect to time of day were investigated, and four distinct patterns of occupant behaviour were observed. Based on the initial results of the homogeneous HMMs and with the observed dependencies, time dependent HMMs (inhomogeneous HMMs) were developed, which improved forecasting. For both the homogeneous and inhomogeneous HMMs, indications of common parameters were observed, which suggests further development of the HMMs as population models.

Comparing time-series clustering approaches for individual electrical load patterns

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 10:41:36 +0200

This work positions the task of grouping electricity load time series among the vast field of clustering, and highlights corresponding research issues. A selection of the most performant time-series clustering approaches from the signal processing community are compared on the same dataset, composed by domestic electricity load profiles from Spain. The cross-correlation-based distance of Paparrizos and Gravano (2015) is shown to provide the best trade-off between clustering accuracy and CPU times

Using matrix factorisation for the prediction of electrical quantities

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 10:24:38 +0200

The prediction task is attracting more and more attention among the power system community. Accurate predictions of electrical quantities up to a few hours ahead (e.g. renewable production, electrical load etc.) are for instance crucial for distribution system operators to operate their network in the presence of a high share of renewables, or for energy producers to maximise their profits by optimising their portfolio management. In the literature, statistical approaches are usually proposed to predict electrical quantities. In the present study, the authors present a novel method based on matrix factorisation. The authors' approach is inspired by the literature on data mining and knowledge discovery and the methodologies involved in recommender systems. The idea is to transpose the problem of predicting ratings in a recommender system to a problem of forecasting electrical quantities in a power system. Preliminary results on a real wind speed dataset tend to show that the matrix factorisation model provides similar results than auto regressive integrated models in terms of accuracy (MAE and RMSE). The authors' approach is nevertheless highly scalable and can deal with noisy data (e.g. missing data).

Developing indicators to improve energy action plans in municipalities: An accounting framework based on the fund-flow model

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 10:00:17 +0200

The main instrument used to implement the EU 2020 objectives at local level is the Covenant of Mayors, which fosters the development of Sustainable Energy Action Plans (SEAPs); these plans aim to reduce CO2 emissions by at least 20% by 2020. These action plans are linked to different municipal promotion tools, and a set of indicators has also been proposed to define and monitor the actions. In general, the adequacy of the main indicators used by the SEAPs is analysed, taking into consideration the representation of the urban system across all scales (city, neighbourhood and building) as well as whether the chosen indicators enable the analyst to consider the influence of human activities (i.e. hours of use) on energy consumption, within the system. In contrast, this paper proposes to apply the fund-flow model as an accounting framework that can be used to develop indicators for energy-efficient urban planning. The energy model behind these indicators was obtained using an innovative procedure for energy simulation which considers the isolated characteristics of the buildings (type of construction, occupation, interior comfort, type of energy system) as well as the interaction with the surrounding buildings (shadows, streets, geometry).The indicators proposed have been developed within the SEMANCO UE project, and we have taken into account their potential as criteria for identifying the most effective actions for energy planning on multilevel scales. An example in Manresa (Spain) is used to test the usability. Our results demonstrate that these indicators are suitable for use in decision-making processes in the field of urban planning and for performing coherent comparisons of actions between urban areas, cities, countries or regions.

EMPOWERING, a smart Big Data framework for sustainable electricity suppliers

María Jesús Samper — Tue, 05 May 2020 09:46:15 +0200

This paper presents the EMPOWERING project, a Big Data environment aimed at helping domestic customers to save electricity by managing their consumption positively. This is achieved by improving the information received about energy bills and offering online tools. The main contributions of EMPOWERING are the creation of a novel workflow in the electricity utility sector regarding the implementation of data analytics for their customers and the fast implementation of data-mining techniques in massive datasets within a Big Data platform to achieve scalability. The results obtained show that EMPOWERING can be of use for customers of electrical suppliers by changing their energy habits to decrease consumption and so increase environmental sustainability.

Experimental and numerical assessment of local resonance phenomena in 3D-printed acoustic metamaterials

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 16:49:46 +0200

The so called Locally Resonant Acoustic Metamaterials (LRAM) are a new kind of artificially engineered materials capable of attenuating acoustic waves. As the name suggests, this phenomenon occurs in the vicinity of internal frequencies of the material structure, and can give rise to acoustic bandgaps. One possible way to achieve this is by considering periodic arrangements of a certain topology (unit cell), smaller in size than the characteristic wavelength. In this context, a computational model based on a homogenization framework has been developed from which one can obtain the aforementioned resonance frequencies for a given LRAM unit cell design in the sub-wavelength regime, which is suitable for low-frequency applications. Aiming at validating both the proposed numerical model and the local resonance phenomena responsible for the attenuation capabilities of such materials, a 3D-printed prototype consisting of a plate with a well selected LRAM unit cell design has been built and its acoustic response to normal incident waves in the range between 500 and 2000 Hz has been tested in an impedance tube. The results demonstrate the attenuating capabilities of the proposed design in the targeted frequency range for normal incident sound pressure waves and also establish the proposed formulation as the fundamental base for the computational design of 3D-printed LRAM-based structures

Variational approach to relaxed topological optimization: closed form solutions for structural problems in a sequential pseudo-time framework (preprint)

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 16:41:50 +0200

The work explores a specific scenario for structural computational optimization based on the following elements: (a) a relaxed optimization setting considering the ersatz (bi-material) approximation, (b) a treatment based on a non-smoothed characteristic function field as a topological design variable, (c) the consistent derivation of a relaxed topological derivative whose determination is simple, general and efficient, (d) formulation of the overall increasing cost function topological sensitivity as a suitable optimality criterion, and (e) consideration of a pseudo-time framework for the problem solution, ruled by the problem constraint evolution. In this setting, it is shown that the optimization problem can be analytically solved in a variational framework, leading to, nonlinear, closed-form algebraic solutions for the characteristic function, which are then solved, in every time-step, via fixed point methods based on a pseudo-energy cutting algorithm combined with the exact fulfillment of the constraint, at every iteration of the non-linear algorithm, via a bisection method. The issue of the ill-posedness (mesh dependency) of the topological solution, is then easily solved via a Laplacian smoothing of that pseudo-energy. In the aforementioned context, a number of (3D) topological structural optimization benchmarks are solved, and the solutions obtained with the explored closed-form solution method, are analyzed, and compared, with their solution through an alternative level set method. Although the obtained results, in terms of the cost function and topology designs, are very similar in both methods, the associated computational cost is about five times smaller in the closed-form solution method this possibly being one of its advantages. Some comments, about the possible application of the method to other topological optimization problems, as well as envisaged modifications of the explored method to improve its performance close the work

Computational design of locally resonant acoustic metamaterials

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 16:37:50 +0200

The so-called Locally Resonant Acoustic Metamaterials (LRAM) are considered for the design of specifically engineered devices capable of stopping waves from propagating in certain frequency regions (bandgaps), this making them applicable for acoustic insulation purposes. This fact has inspired the design of a new kind of lightweight acoustic insulation panels with the ability to attenuate noise sources in the low frequency range (below 5000 Hz) without requiring thick pieces of very dense materials. A design procedure based on different computational mechanics tools, namely, (1) a multiscale homogenization framework, (2) model order reduction strategies and (3) topological optimization procedures, is proposed. It aims at attenuating sound waves through the panel for a target set of resonance frequencies as well as maximizing the associated bandgaps. The resulting design’s performance is later studied by introducing viscoelastic properties in the coating phase, in order to both analyse their effects on the overall design and account for more realistic behaviour. The study displays the emerging field of Computational Material Design (CMD) as a computational mechanics area with enormous potential for the design of metamaterial-based industrial acoustic parts

Strain injection techniques for modeling 3D crack propagation

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 16:23:17 +0200

This work presents some novel results obtained by using the strain injection techniques for modeling crack propagation in challenging 3D benchmark tests. The techniques were already tested and validated by static and dynamic simulations in 2D [1-4], so the main goal of this paper is to verify if the most important advantages of the method, low computational cost and independence of the results on the finite element mesh, are kept in 3D. The methodology, implemented in the finite element framework, consists essentially in injecting those elements that are going to capture the cracks with some enhanced strain modes for improving the performance of the elements for modeling propagating material failure

Strain-injection and crack-path field techniques for 3D crack-propagation modelling in quasi-brittle materials

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 16:14:24 +0200

This paper presents a finite element approach for modelling three-dimensional crack propagation in quasi-brittle materials, based on the strain injection and the crack-path field techniques. These numerical techniques were already tested and validated by static and dynamic simulations in 2D classical benchmarks [Dias et al., in: Monograph CIMNE No-134. International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Barcelona, (2012); Oliver et al. in Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 274:289–348, (2014); Lloberas-Valls et al. in Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 308:499–534, (2016)] and, also, for modelling tensile crack propagation in real concrete structures, like concrete gravity dams [Dias et al. in Eng Fract Mech 154:288–310, (2016)]. The main advantages of the methodology are the low computational cost and the independence of the results on the size and orientation of the finite element mesh. These advantages were highlighted in previous works by the authors and motivate the present extension to 3D cases. The proposed methodology is implemented in the finite element framework using continuum constitutive models equipped with strain softening and consists, essentially, in injecting the elements candidate to capture the cracks with some goal oriented strain modes for improving the performance of the injected elements for simulating propagating displacement discontinuities. The goal-oriented strain modes are introduced by resorting to mixed formulations and to the Continuum Strong Discontinuity Approach (CSDA), while the crack position inside the finite elements is retrieved by resorting to the crack-path field technique. Representative numerical simulations in 3D benchmarks show that the advantages of the methodology already pointed out in 2D are kept in 3D scenarios

A computational multiscale homogenization framework accounting for inertial effects: application to acoustic metamaterials modelling

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 15:52:29 +0200

A framework, based on an extended Hill–Mandel principle accounting for inertial effects (Multiscale Virtual Work principle), is developed for application to acoustic problems in the context of metamaterials modelling. The classical restrictions in the mean values of the micro-displacement fluctuations and their gradients are then accounted for in a saddle-point formulation of that variational principle in terms of Lagrange functionals. A physical interpretation of the involved Lagrange multipliers can then be readily obtained. The framework is specifically tailored for modelling the phenomena involved in Locally Resonant Acoustic Metamaterials (LRAM). In this view, several additional hypotheses based on scale separation are used to split the fully coupled micro-macro set of equations into a quasi-static and an inertial system. These are then solved by considering a projection of the microscale equations into their natural modes, which allows for a low-cost computational treatment of the multiscale problem. On this basis, the issue of numerically capturing the local resonance phenomena in a FE context is addressed. Objectivity of the obtained results in terms of the macroscopic Finite Element (FE) discretization is checked as well as accuracy of the homogenization procedure by comparing with direct numerical simulations (DNS). The appearance of local resonance band-gaps is then modelled for a homogeneous 2D problem and its extension to multi-layered macroscopic material is presented as an initial attempt towards acoustic metamaterial design for tailored band-gap attenuation

Computational material design for acoustic cloaking

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 15:26:15 +0200

A topology optimization technique based on the topological derivative and the level set function is utilized to design/synthesize the micro-structure of a pentamode material for an acoustic cloaking device. The technique provides a micro-structure consisting of a honeycomb lattice composed of needle-like and joint members. The resulting metamaterial shows a highly anisotropic elastic response with effective properties displaying a ratio between bulk and shear moduli of almost 3 orders of magnitude. Furthermore, in accordance with previous works in the literature, it can be asserted that this kind of micro-structure can be realistically fabricated. The adoption of a topology optimization technique as a tool for the inverse design of metamaterials with applications to acoustic cloaking problems is one contribution of this paper. However, the most important achievement refers to the analysis and discussion revealing the key role of the external shape of the prescribed domain where the optimization problem is posed. The efficiency of the designed micro-structure is measured by comparing the scattering wave fields generated by acoustic plane waves impinging on bare and cloaked bodies

The domain interface method in non-conforming domain decomposition multifield problemsdomain decomposition multifield problems

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 15:11:49 +0200

Vademecum-based approach to multi-scale topological material design

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 14:50:32 +0200

The work deals on computational design of structural materials by resorting to computational homogenization and topological optimization techniques. The goal is then to minimize the structural (macro-scale) compliance by appropriately designing the material distribution (microstructure) at a lower scale (micro-scale), which, in turn, rules the mechanical properties of the material. The specific features of the proposed approach are: (1) The cost function to be optimized (structural stiffness) is defined at the macro-scale, whereas the design variables defining the micro-structural topology lie on the low scale. Therefore a coupled, two-scale (macro/micro), optimization problem is solved unlike the classical, single-scale, topological optimization problems. (2) To overcome the exorbitant computational cost stemming from the multiplicative character of the aforementioned multiscale approach, a specific strategy, based on the consultation of a discrete material catalog of micro-scale optimized topologies (Computational Vademecum) is used. The Computational Vademecum is computed in an offline process, which is performed only once for every constitutive-material, and it can be subsequently consulted as many times as desired in the online design process. This results into a large diminution of the resulting computational costs, which make affordable the proposed methodology for multiscale computational material design. Some representative examples assess the performance of the considered approach

Model Order Reduction in Computational multiscale fracture mechanics

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 14:12:10 +0200

Nowadays, the model order reduction techniques have become an intensive research eld because of the increasing interest in the computational modeling of complex phenomena in multi-physic problems, and its conse- quent increment in high-computing demanding processes; it is well known that the availability of high-performance computing capacity is, in most of cases limited, therefore, the model order reduction becomes a novelty tool to overcome this paradigm, that represents an immediately challenge in our research community. In computational multiscale modeling for instance, in order to study the interaction between components, a di erent numerical model has to be solved in each scale, this feature increases radically the computational cost. We present a reduced model based on a multi-scale framework for numerical modeling of the structural failure of heterogeneous quasi-brittle materials using the Strong Discontinuity Approach (CSD). The model is assessed by application to cementitious materials. The Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) and the Reduced Order Integration Cubature are the pro- posed techniques to develop the reduced model, these two techniques work together to reduce both, the complexity and computational time of the high-delity model, in our case the FE2 standard model

Strain injection techniques in dynamic fracture modeling

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 14:03:53 +0200

A computationally affordable modeling of dynamic fracture phenomena is performed in this study by using strain injection techniques and Finite Elements with Embedded strong discontinuities (E-FEM). In the present research, classical strain localization and strong discontinuity approaches are considered by injecting discontinuous strain and displacement modes in the finite element formulation without an increase of the total number of degrees of freedom. Following the Continuum Strong Discontinuity Approach (CSDA), stress–strain constitutive laws can be employed in the context of fracture phenomena and, therefore, the methodology remains applicable to a wide number of continuum mechanics models. The position and orientation of the displacement discontinuity is obtained through the solution of a crack propagation problem, i.e. the crack path field, based on the distribution of localized strains. The combination of the above mentioned approaches is envisaged to avoid stress-locking and directional mesh bias phenomena. Dynamic simulations are performed increasing the loading rate up to the appearance of crack branching, and the variation in terms of failure modes is investigated as well as the influence of the strain injection together with the crack path field algorithm. Objectivity of the presented methodology with respect to the spatial and temporal discretization is analyzed in terms of the dissipated energy during the fracture process. The dissipation at the onset of branching is studied for different loading rate conditions and is linked to the experimental maximum velocity observed before branching takes place

The domain interface method: a general-purpose non-intrusive technique for non-conforming domain decomposition problems

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 13:54:10 +0200

A domain decomposition technique is proposed which is capable of properly connecting arbitrary non-conforming interfaces. The strategy essentially consists in considering a fictitious zero-width interface between the non-matching meshes which is discretized using a Delaunay triangulation. Continuity is satisfied across domains through normal and tangential stresses provided by the discretized interface and inserted in the formulation in the form of Lagrange multipliers. The final structure of the global system of equations resembles the dual assembly of substructures where the Lagrange multipliers are employed to nullify the gap between domains. A new approach to handle floating subdomains is outlined which can be implemented without significantly altering the structure of standard industrial finite element codes. The effectiveness of the developed algorithm is demonstrated through a patch test example and a number of tests that highlight the accuracy of the methodology and independence of the results with respect to the framework parameters. Considering its high degree of flexibility and non-intrusive character, the proposed domain decomposition framework is regarded as an attractive alternative to other established techniques such as the mortar approach.

Modeling tensile crack propagation in concrete gravity dams via crack-path-field and strain injection techniques

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 13:45:51 +0200

This work investigates tensile crack propagation in concrete gravity dams by using some recently developed numerical techniques (crack-path field and strain injection techniques). The work carefully addresses aspects related to mesh independence, robustness and computational cost, which are the main issues in fracture modeling. The novel technique consists of a procedure to insert, in the selected domain areas, specific strain fields for enhancing the performance of the underlying finite elements in modeling fracture. Representative numerical simulations of concrete dams show the accuracy and robustness of the methodology

On micro-to-macro connections in domain decomposition multiscale methods

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 13:40:39 +0200

Micro-to-macro connection techniques constitute a key ingredient in the formulation of multiscale strategies. In this contribution several connection methods are explored for the concurrent multiscale analysis of brittle heterogeneous materials. Particularly, these techniques are investigated in a domain decomposition strong coupling multiscale framework. The structural component under analysis is partitioned into a number of non-overlapping domains and a fine scale resolution is assigned therein in an adaptive manner exploiting a zoom-in technique. Mesh refinement is employed in the domains where crack coalescence and growth take place. The original contribution presented in this manuscript consists in the study of different strong and weak locality constraints that connect coarse and fine resolution domains. Standard collocation and average compatibility are considered and serve as a basis for the development of two new interscale links. The influence of different locality constraints is studied in terms of the mechanical response and the error distribution is compared to a full fine scale analysis

Multiscale domain decomposition analysis of quasi-brittle heterogeneous materials

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 13:31:46 +0200

A hybrid multiscale framework is presented, which processes the material scales in a concurrent manner, borrowing features from hierarchical multiscale methods. The framework is used for the analysis of nonlinear heterogeneous materials and is capable of tackling strain localization and failure phenomena. Domain decomposition techniques, such as the finite element tearing and interconnecting method, are used to partition the material in a number of non-overlapping domains and adaptive refinement is performed at those domains that are affected by damage processes. This refinement is performed in terms of material scale and finite element size. It is verified that the results are independent of the chosen domain decomposition. Moreover, the multiscale analyses are validated with reference solutions obtained with a full fine-scale solution procedure.

Computational homogenization for multiscale crack modeling: implementational and computational aspects

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 13:03:20 +0200

A computational homogenization procedure for cohesive and adhesive crack modeling of materials with a heterogeneous microstructure has been recently presented in Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering (2010, DOI:10.1016/j.cma.2010.10.013). The macroscopic material properties of the cohesive cracks are obtained from the inelastic deformation manifested in a localization band (modeled with a continuum damage theory) at the microscopic scale. The macroscopic behavior of the adhesive crack is derived from the response of a microscale sample representing the microstructure inside the adhesive crack. In this manuscript, we extend the theory presented in Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering (2010, DOI:10.1016/j.cma.2010.10.013) with implementation details, solutions for cyclic loading, crack propagation, numerical analysis of the convergence characteristics of the multiscale method, and treatment of macroscopic snapback in a multiscale simulation. Numerical examples including crack growth simulations with extended finite elements are given to demonstrate the performance of the method.

Domain decomposition techniques for the efficient modeling of brittle heterogeneous materials

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 12:45:35 +0200

This paper describes a computational tool for the efficient study of failure in brittle heterogeneous materials. By means of several examples, it is demonstrated that the proposed tool is adequate for the analysis of materials that show localized failure modes. This case is particular since the main non-linearities concentrate in a small area compared to the whole specimen. The use of the method is preferred when the mesoscopic structure plays a crucial role during failure processes and needs to be fully taken into account in order to accurately tackle damage growth and propagation in the material. The present strategy is based on a Domain decomposition technique. Its performance is improved by selectively processing inelastic regions and reducing the number of operations in the remaining elastic areas. A four point bending test and the fracturing of a heterogeneous concrete specimen are presented as illustrations. They demonstrate that computational costs can be significantly reduced when the proposed strategy is applied to damage analysis.

Homogenization-based multiscale crack modelling: from micro-diffusive damage to macro-cracks

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 12:05:38 +0200

The existence of a representative volume element (RVE) for a class of quasi-brittle materials having a random heterogeneous microstructure in tensile, shear and mixed mode loading is demonstrated by deriving traction–separation relations, which are objective with respect to RVE size. A computational homogenization based multiscale crack modelling framework, implemented in an FE2 setting, for quasi-brittle solids with complex random microstructure is presented. The objectivity of the macroscopic response to the micro-sample size is shown by numerical simulations. Therefore, a homogenization scheme, which is objective with respect to macroscopic discretization and microscopic sample size, is devised. Numerical examples including a comparison with direct numerical simulation are given to demonstrate the performance of the proposed method

On the existence of representative volumes for softening quasi-brittle materials: a failure zone averaging scheme

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 11:31:04 +0200

The concept of the representative volume element (RVE) for softening materials is revised in this contribution. It is demonstrated by means of numerical simulations that there exists a sample which is statistically representative for quasi-brittle materials with random microstructure like concrete. This finding is an important ingredient for homogenization-based multiscale modelling of softening materials.

Increasing understanding and confidence in THM simulations of engineered barrier systems

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 10:41:01 +0200

Previous studies on the modelling of coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) processes in bentonite-based engineered barrier systems (EBSs) showed the sensitivity of the output quantities to changes in the input parameters. To investigate the effects of uncertainties on the modelling results, to improve the understanding of the coupled processes active in the repository near field and to gain in-depth understanding of model uncertainties of different codes, a sensitivity analysis and code comparison of EBS simulations was performed within the Task Force on Engineered Barrier Systems. The analysis included variations in material parameter values, boundary and initial conditions, considered physical processes and model geometries, amounting to 60 different cases. This in-depth analysis helped evaluate the influence of parameter and conceptual uncertainties on the results of coupled THM simulations and to identify key parameters and processes. The cross-code comparison encouraged a fruitful exchange among modelling teams and led to very good agreements between the results of the different codes. Serving as a benchmark example for THM-coupled simulations of bentonite-based EBSs, the study helped increase the confidence in the modelling capabilities of several codes used for safety evaluations of repositories for spent fuel and high-level radioactive waste

Characterisation of the multi-scale fabric features of high plasticity clays

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 10:26:57 +0200

An investigation of the microstructural features of a high-plasticity clay, in both its natural conditions and reconstituted in the laboratory, is described. Scanning electron microscopy is used here to characterise the fabric at different magnifications, while image processing of the micrographs delivers a quantitative assessment of the fabric orientation. The results of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and swelling tests, as reported in a previous study by the authors, are used to characterise the bonding nature and strength, as well as mercury intrusion porosimetry to investigate clay porosimetry. Despite their identical composition, the natural and the reconstituted clay have experienced different deposition and loading history, generating different microstructural features that are shown to underlie their differences in state. For both clays, one-dimensional (1D) compression to medium–high pressures is seen to determine a well-oriented medium magnification fabric. However, larger-scale observations and the corresponding image processing results reveal non-uniform local fabric features, hence making fabric characterisation dependent on the scale of analysis and bringing about the issue of identifying the clay micro-scale representative element volume relating to the clay macro-behaviour. The micro-REV is identified for the clays under study and its connection with the macro-behaviour characterised. The microstructural evolution induced by 1D compression to very high pressures is shown to concern mainly the clay porosity and porosimetry, the fabric orientation being steady, thus explaining the isotropic hardening observed in laboratory tests.

Discussion on 'Effects of particle breakage and stress reversal on the behaviour of sand around displacement piles'

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 10:02:46 +0200

Micromechanical inspection of incremental behaviour of crushable soils

María Jesús Samper — Mon, 04 May 2020 09:49:53 +0200

In granular soils grain crushing reduces dilatancy and stress obliquity enhances crushability. These are well-supported specimen-scale experimental observations. In principle, those observations should reflect some peculiar micromechanism associated with crushing, but which is it? To answer that question the nature of crushing-induced particle-scale interactions is here investigated using an efficient DEM model of crushable soil. Microstructural measures such as the mechanical coordination number and fabric are examined while performing systematic stress probing on the triaxial plane. Numerical techniques such as parallel and the newly introduced sequential probing enable clear separation of the micromechanical mechanisms associated with crushing. Particle crushing is shown to reduce fabric anisotropy during incremental loading and to slow fabric change during continuous shearing. On the other hand, increased fabric anisotropy does take more particles closer to breakage. Shear-enhanced breakage appears then to be a natural consequence of shear-enhanced fabric anisotropy. The particle crushing model employed here makes crushing dependent only on particle and contact properties, without any pre-established influence of particle connectivity. That influence does not emerge, and it is shown how particle connectivity, per se, is not a good indicator of crushing likelihood

Conceptual uncertainties in modelling the interaction between engineered and natural barriers of nuclear waste repositories in crystalline rocks

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 18:01:55 +0200

Nuclear waste disposal in geological formations relies on a multi-barrier concept that includes engineered components – which, in many cases, include a bentonite buffer surrounding waste packages – and the host rock. Contrasts in materials, together with gradients across the interface between the engineered and natural barriers, lead to complex interactions between these two subsystems. Numerical modelling, combined with monitoring and testing data, can be used to improve our overall understanding of rock–bentonite interactions and to predict the performance of this coupled system. Although established methods exist to examine the prediction uncertainties due to uncertainties in the input parameters, the impact of conceptual model decisions on the quantitative and qualitative modelling results is more difficult to assess. A Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company Task Force project facilitated such an assessment. In this project, 11 teams used different conceptualizations and modelling tools to analyse the Bentonite Rock Interaction Experiment (BRIE) conducted at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory in Sweden. The exercise showed that prior system understanding along with the features implemented in the available simulators affect the processes included in the conceptual model. For some of these features, sufficient characterization data are available to obtain defensible results and interpretations, whereas others are less supported. The exercise also helped to identify the conceptual uncertainties that led to different assessments of the relative importance of the engineered and natural barrier subsystems. The range of predicted bentonite wetting times encompassed by the ensemble results were considerably larger than the ranges derived from individual models. This is a consequence of conceptual uncertainties, demonstrating the relevance of using a multi-model approach involving alternative conceptualizations.

Standard penetration testing in a virtual calibration chamber

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 17:47:41 +0200

The virtual calibration chamber technique, based on the discrete element method, is here applied to study the standard penetration test (SPT). A macro-element approach is used to represent a rod driven with an impact like those applied to perform SPT. The rod is driven into a chamber filled with a scaled discrete analogue of a quartz sand. The contact properties of the discrete analogue are calibrated simulating two low-pressure triaxial tests. The rod is driven changing input energy and controlling initial density and confinement stress. Energy-based blowcount normalization is shown to be effective. Results obtained are in good quantitative agreement with well-accepted experimentally-based relations between blowcount, density and overburden. It is also shown that the tip resistance measured under impact dynamic penetration conditions is close to that under constant velocity conditions, hence supporting recent proposals to relate CPT and SPT results

Sphericity measures of sand grains

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 17:27:42 +0200

The sphericity of a grain should measure the similitude of its shape with that of a sphere. Sphericity is a shape descriptor of long-standing interest for sedimentology. Now it has gained also interest to facilitate discrete element modelling of granular materials. True sphericity was initially defined by a surface ratio that requires three-dimensional (3D) grain surface measurement. That kind of measurement has been practically impossible until recently and, as a consequence, a number of alternative 3D measures and 2D proxies were proposed. In this work we present results from a study of grain shape based on x-ray tomography of two different sand specimens, containing more than 110.000 particles altogether. Sphericity measures were systematically obtained for all grains. 2D proxy measures were also obtained in samples of oriented and not-oriented grains. It is shown that the 2D proxy best correlated with true sphericity is perimeter sphericity, whereas the traditional Krumbein-Sloss chart proxy is poorly correlated. 2D measures acquired through minor axis projection are more closely related to 3D measures than those acquired using random projections.

Clays in natural and engineered barriers for nuclear waste disposal

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 16:50:04 +0200

Argillaceous rocks and expansive clays play a key role in many scenarios of the deep geological disposal of nuclear waste.

Grading evolution and critical state in a discrete numerical model of Fontainebleau sand

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 16:37:07 +0200

Granular materials reach critical states upon shearing. The position and shape of a critical state line (CSL) in the compression plane are important for constitutive models, interpretation of in situ tests and liquefaction analyses. It is not fully clear how grain crushing may affect the identification and uniqueness of the CSL in granular soils. Discrete-element simulations are used here to establish the relation between breakage-induced grading evolution and the CSL position in the compression plane. An efficient model of particle breakage is applied to perform a large number of tests, in which grading evolution is continuously tracked using a grading index. Using both previous and new experimental results, the discrete-element model is calibrated and validated to represent Fontainebleau sand, a quartz sand. The results obtained show that, when breakage is present, the inclusion of a grading index in the description of critical states is advantageous. This can be simply done using the critical state plane (CSP) concept. A CSP is obtained for Fontainebleau sand.

Numerical simulation of the undrained stability of slopes in anisotropic fine-grained soils

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 16:26:24 +0200

The undrained stability of slopes in anisotropic fine-grained soils is studied in this paper using the finite element method (FEM). A constitutive model is presented, able to account for the observed variation of undrained strength with loading direction. The model is able to encompass the different strength distributions observed in normally, slightly overconsolidated and heavily overconsolidated soils. A series of stability analyses have been performed to explore the effect of the type of undrained strength anisotropy on the stability and failure mechanisms of slopes of different inclinations. In addition, a real case study of the failure of an underwater slope is analysed with the numerical approach presented. It suggests that, by considering undrained strength anisotropy, the failure can be satisfactorily explained.

SDMT-based numerical analyses of deep excavation in soft soil

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 16:19:38 +0200

The paper explores the application of conventional (DMT) and seismic (SDMT) dilatometer tests to an important case of deep excavation design. The work presents finite-element analyses simulating a deep excavation close to Barcelona (Spain). A thick layer of soft interbedded sandy and silty soils made characterization based on laboratory testing very difficult. SDMT offered an alternative for estimating the soil stiffness and its stress-strain dependency. Numerical results and high-quality monitoring data show quite close agreement for most phases of the construction process, supporting the use of seismic dilatometer tests in numerical analyses of deep excavations. The paper also indicates the importance of incorporating stiffness data at low strains. FE analyses involved some uncertainties derived from the presence of jet-grouting soil treatments. On this point, a parametric study illustrates the effects of different modeling approaches.

Nonlocal plasticity modelling of strain localisation in stiff clays

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:52:08 +0200

The paper addresses the numerical simulation of strain localisation in stiff clays that exhibit softening behaviour. An elastoplastic constitutive model developed to incorporate key features of stiff clay behaviour is described first. A non-local formulation is then introduced for the regularisation of the analysis of localisation. A series of analyses were conducted to explore relevant aspects of the numerical simulation of localisation. A 3D analysis was also performed to assess the suitability of the approach presented for 3D applications. Finally, application to the simulation of a laboratory test on Beaucaire marl results in an excellent reproduction of experimental observations.

On the choice of stress–strain variables for unsaturated soils and its effect on plastic flow

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:43:52 +0200

The net stress plus suction and the average skeleton stress plus modified suction are two alternative sets of energetically consistent stress variables for modelling the hydro-mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils. When used in conjunction with their work-conjugate strains, both sets of stress variables correctly calculate the first-order term of the hydro-mechanical work input into a soil element subjected to infinitesimal changes of deformation and water content. They therefore also correctly calculate the increment of internal energy along a given stress–strain path, that is the integral of the first-order term of the infinitesimal work input. This paper shows, however, that the above two sets of stress variables lead to different values of the second-order term of the hydro-mechanical work input. They are therefore no longer equivalent with respect to other aspects of material behaviour governed by the second-order work such as the flow rule of elasto-plastic models. The flow rule assumes the normality between plastic strains and equipotential surfaces defined in the conjugate stress–strain space. This normality is however lost when an elasto-plastic model originally formulated in terms of net stress plus suction is recast in terms of average skeleton stress plus modified suction (or vice versa) by means of standard mapping relationships between stress variables. To restore normality in both stress spaces, it is necessary to impose specific forms of elastic and plastic behaviour.

Marchetti flat dilatometer tests in a virtual calibration chamber

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:36:34 +0200

Calibration chambers are frequently used to verify, adapt, or both verify and adapt empirical relations between different state variables and in situ test results. Virtual calibration chambers (VCC) built with 3D discrete element models may be used to extend and partially substitute costly physical testing series. VCC are used here to explore the mechanics of flat dilatometer penetration and expansion. Results obtained for a simulation of physical tests in Ticino sand are presented. Blade tip resistance during penetration is in good agreement with the experiments. A piston-like design is used for the blade so that larger displacements may be applied than it is possible with a membrane. Initial piston pressures in the expansion curves are very low, strongly affected by the scaled-up grain sizes. Despite that difficulty, expansion curves may be easily interpreted to recover dilatometer moduli ED close to those observed in the physical experiments. Particle-scale examination of the results allows a firmer understanding of the current limitations and future potential of the technique. Copyright ASTM International. All rights reserved, 2018/16/07. Downloaded by UPC, pursuant to Author/Copyright Owner Agreement. No further reproduction authorized.

A time-dependent anisotropic model for argillaceous rocks: application to an underground excavation in Callovo-Oxfordian claystone

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:15:32 +0200

The paper presents a constitutive model for argillaceous rocks, developed within the framework of elastoplasticity, that includes a number of features that are relevant for a satisfactory description of their hydromechanical behaviour: anisotropy of strength and stiffness, behaviour nonlinearity and occurrence of plastic strains prior to peak strength, significant softening after peak, time-dependent creep deformations and permeability increase due to damage. Both saturated and unsaturated conditions are envisaged. The constitutive model is then applied to the simulation of triaxial and creep tests on Callovo-Oxfordian (COx) claystone. Although the main objective has been the simulation of the COx claystone behaviour, the model can be readily used for other argillaceous materials. The constitutive model developed is then applied, via a suitable coupled hydromechanical formulation, to the analysis of the excavation of a drift in the Meuse/Haute-Marne Underground Research Laboratory. The pattern of observed pore water pressures and displacements, as well as the shape and extent of the damaged zone, are generally satisfactorily reproduced. The relevance and importance of rock anisotropy and of the development of a damaged zone around the excavations are clearly demonstrated.

Numerical analysis of the hydromechanical response of Callovo-Oxfordian claystone to deep excavations

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:07:40 +0200

Deep geological disposal is considered as one of the promising options for the long-term management of the High-Level (HL) and Intermediate-Level Long-Lived (IL-LL) radioactive waste. Different argillaceous formations are studied in different countries for this purpose, such as, Opalinus clay in Switzerland, Boom clay in Belgium and Callovo-Oxfordian claystone in France.

Performance of the Opalinus Clay under thermal loading: experimental results from Mont Terri rock laboratory (Switzerland)

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 15:00:17 +0200

The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00015-016-0258-8 The paper presents an overview of the behaviour of Opalinus Clay under thermal loading as observed in three in situ heating tests performed in the Mont Terri rock laboratory: HE-B, HE-D and HE-E. The three tests are summarily described; they encompass a broad range of test layouts and experimental conditions. Afterwards, the following topics are examined: determination of thermal conductivity, thermally-induced pore pressure generation and thermally-induced mechanical effects. The mechanisms underlying pore pressure generation and dissipation are discussed in detail and the relationship between rock damage and thermal loading is examined using an additional in situ test: SE-H. The paper concludes with an evaluation of the various thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) interactions identified in the heating tests.

Numerical analysis of suction embedded plate anchors in structured clay

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 14:46:29 +0200

As offshore energy developments move towards deeper water, moored floating production facilities are increasingly preferred to fixed structures. Anchoring systems are therefore of great interest to engineers working on deep water developments. Suction embedded plate anchors (SEPLAs) are rapidly becoming a popular solution, possessing a more accurate and predictable installation process compared to traditional alternatives. In this paper, finite element analysis has been conducted to evaluate the ultimate pullout capacity of SEPLAs in a range of post-keying configurations. Previous numerical studies of anchor pullout capacity have generally treated the soil as an elastic-perfectly plastic medium. However, the mechanical behaviour of natural clays is affected by inter-particle bonding, or structure, which cannot be accounted for using simple elasto-plastic models. Here, an advanced constitutive model formulated within the kinematic hardening framework is used to accurately predict the degradation of structure as an anchor embedded in a natural soft clay deposit is loaded to its pullout capacity. In comparison with an idealised, non-softening clay, the degradation of clay structure due to plastic strains in the soil mass results in a lower pullout capacity factor, a quantity commonly used in design, and a more complex load–displacement relationship. It can be concluded that clay structure has an important effect on the pullout behaviour of plate anchors.

Fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical double-porosity formulation for unsaturated soils

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 14:13:51 +0200

This work presents a fully coupled formulation developed to handle engineering problems in unsaturated (and saturated) soils that present two dominant void levels. The proposed framework assumes the presence of two porous media linked through a mass-transfer term between them. In its more general form, the proposed approach allows the consideration of nonisothermal multiphase flow coupled with the mechanical problem. The double-porosity formulation was implemented in a finite-element code and has been used to analyze a variety of engineering problems. The approach is especially suitable for cases in which the material exhibits a strong coupling between the mechanical and the hydraulic problems in both media, such as with swelling clays. For those types of problems, the proposed formulation is used in conjunction with the mechanical double-structure model already proposed by the authors. This paper presents the coupled formulation and the application of the proposed approach to problems involving expansive unsaturated clays. Very satisfactory results were obtained in these analyses

A numerical investigation of the incremental behavior of crushable granular soils

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 14:06:25 +0200

The mechanical behavior of granular materials is characterized by strong nonlinearity and irreversibility. These properties have been differently described by a variety of constitutive models. To test any constitutive model, experimental data relative to the nature of the incremental stress–strain response of the material is desirable. However, this type of laboratory data is scarce because of being expensive and difficult to obtain. The discrete element method has been used several times as an alternative to obtain incremental responses of granular materials. Crushable grains add one extra source of irreversibility to granular materials. Crushability has been variously incorporated into different constitutive models. Again, it will be helpful to obtain incremental responses of crushable granular materials to test these models, but the experimental difficulties are increased. Making use of a recently introduced crushing model for discrete element simulation, this paper presents a new procedure to obtain incremental responses in discrete analogs of granular crushable materials. The parallel probe approach, previously used for uncrushable discrete analogs, is here extended to account for the presence of crushable grains. The contribution of grain crushing to the incremental irreversible strain is identified and separately measured. Robustness of the proposed method is examined in detail, paying particular attention to aspects such as dynamic instability or crushing localization. The proposed procedure is later applied to map incremental responses of a discrete analog of Fontainebleau sand on the triaxial plane. The effect of stress ratio and granular state on plastic flow characteristics is highlighted.

Exploring ice content on partially saturated frozen soils using dielectric permittivity and bulk electrical conductivity measurements

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:59:39 +0200

The present paper explores the use of the measurement of bulk electric conductivity and relative dielectric permittivity during freezing and thawing to estimate the ice content of two different partially saturated soils. The soils (Castelldefels fine sand and Barcelona clayey silt) were prepared at different degrees of saturation and dry densities at room temperature. Different target temperatures were used, which were reached at varying freezing rates and controlled with a thermal bath. Models were used to fit electrical conductivity and relative dielectric permittivity results under full unfrozen liquid and maximum ice conditions. The extension of these models allows estimating ice content on partially saturated soils at different porosities.

Anisotropic behaviour of compacted clayey silt subjected to hydromechanical paths

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:50:59 +0200

Compaction induces anisotropy on soil deformational response due to preferential straining associated with the fabrication process. An experimental insight into the stress-strain response of Barcelona clayey silt is provided here. The material was statically compacted at low dry density to induce high collapsibility upon wetting (dry density 1.48 Mg/m3, water content 12%). Two types of controlled-suction tests were carried out: a) constant suction radial paths on as-compacted samples following different stress ratios (deviator stress / mean net stress: q/p Compaction induces anisotropy on soil deformational response due to preferential straining associated with the fabrication process. An experimental insight into the stress-strain response of Barcelona clayey silt is provided here. The material was statically compacted at low dry density to induce high collapsibility upon wetting (dry density 1.48 Mg/m3, water content 12%). Two types of controlled-suction tests were carried out: a) constant suction radial paths on as-compacted samples following different stress ratios (deviator stress / mean net stress: q/p¿, including isotropic and K0 stress paths; and b) the same type of radial stress paths but performed after saturation under low confining stress. These paths were intended to define the as-compacted and saturated yield surfaces. The experimental data on as-compacted state is satisfactorily interpreted adopting an anisotropic yield surface with an inclination linked to the compaction under oedometer conditions. Development of shear strain was observed during isotropic loading of the compacted samples. This anisotropy that the soil exhibits at the end of the compaction vanishes after collapse by saturation and as plastic volumetric straining develops

Thrust and torque components on mixed-face EPB drives

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:45:55 +0200

In this communication we propose a method to estimate net thrust and torque applied at the excavation front by cutting tools from EPB machines when they are working in mixed faces constituted by soils and soft rock. The method is inspired by similar simplifications used for the analysis of TBM drives in rock. The proposal is validated using a database of EPB registers which were gathered from more than 35 km of tunnel drives excavated in soils, soft rock and heterogeneous media. The results allow us to assess the influence of the type of ground excavated and its geotechnical properties on the net thrust and torque applied.

Analysis of unsaturated materials hydration incorporating the effect of thermo-osmotic flow

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:09:21 +0200

The geological disposal of a high level radioactive waste relies in a system composed of engineered and geological barriers. The soils and rocks involved in the design of this type of solution are generally initially unsaturated and subject to complex thermal, hydraulic and mechanical (THM) coupled phenomena triggered by the simultaneous heating and hydration of the barrier materials under confined conditions. Mathematical THM formulations are typically used to analyze the behavior and long term performance of the barriers system. These types of formulations generally do not include some coupled processes, for example thermo-osmosis (i.e. the movement of liquid water induced by gradient of temperature), because they are considered not significant when compared against the main or direct processes (e.g., Darcy’s, Fourier’s and Fick’s laws). In this work, the potential effects of thermo-osmotic phenomenon is studied in detail. Typical flow equations are modified to include thermo-osmotic flows and then they are implemented in numerical simulators. Two case studies are analyzed. The first one focuses on a simple and already proposed model to study the behavior of a geological barrier for nuclear waste when subjected to heating and hydration. The other case corresponds to the study of an engineered clay barrier material in the laboratory subjected to hydraulic and thermal gradients similar to the ones expected in real repository conditions. In both cases the analyses with and without thermo-osmotic flows are compared. From these comparisons it is observed that the effect of thermo-osmosis can be quite significant. Thermo-osmotic effects also assisted to explain the apparent low wetting observed in the hydration of a clayey barrier material.

Artificial ground freezing of a volcanic ash: laboratory tests and modelling

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 12:58:13 +0200

The use of artificial ground freezing (AGF) to form earth support systems has had applications worldwide. These cover a variety of construction problems, including the formation of frozen earth walls to support deep excavations, structural underpinning for foundation improvement and temporary control of ground water in construction processes. On one hand, the main advantage of AGF as a temporary support system in comparison to other support methods, such as those based on injections of chemical or cement grout into the soil, is the low impact on the surrounding environment as the refrigerating medium required to obtain AGF is circulated in pipes and exhausted in the atmosphere or re-circulated without contamination of the ground water. On the other hand, the available methods may vary significantly in their sustainability and complexity in terms of times and costs required for their installation and maintenance. The ability to predict the effects induced by AGF on granular materials is therefore crucial to assessing construction time and cost and to optimising the method. In this work, the thermo-hydro-mechanical processes induced by artificial freezing of a soil body are studied using a constitutive model that encompasses frozen and unfrozen behaviour within a unified effective-stress-based framework. It makes use of a combination of ice pressure, liquid water pressure and total stress as state variables. The model is validated and calibrated using the results of a series of laboratory tests on natural samples of a volcanic ash (Pozzolana) retrieved during construction of Napoli underground, where the technique of AGF was used extensively to stabilise temporarily the ground and control the ground water.

A cross-anisotropic formulation for elasto-plastic models

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 12:53:02 +0200

A cross-anisotropic formulation for elasto-plastic constitutive models based on a non-uniform scaling of the stress tensor is described. Taking advantage of the material symmetries characterising cross-anisotropy, only two scaling factors, one for the normal stress components and one for the shear stress components, are required. It is shown that the formulation can be easily introduced in already implemented models with minor modifications. The performance of this formulation is investigated by reproducing the strength variation of anisotropic rocks in triaxial tests. The numerical simulation of an unsupported excavation is also presented to show the effect of different scaling factors and bedding plane orientations.

DEM modelling of cone penetration tests in a double-porosity crushable granular material

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 12:09:04 +0200

A three-dimensional discrete element model is used to investigate the effect of grain crushing on the tip resistance measured by cone penetration tests (CPT) in calibration chambers. To do that a discrete analogue of pumice sand, a very crushable microporous granular material, is created. The particles of the discrete model are endowed with size-dependent internal porosity and crushing resistance. A simpli- fied Hertz–Mindlin elasto-frictional model is used for contact interaction. The model has 6 material parameters that are calibrated using one oedometer test and analogies with similar geomaterials. The calibration is validated reproducing other element tests. To fill a calibration chamber capable of containing a realistic sized CPT the discrete analogue is up-scaled by a factor of 25. CPT is then performed at two different densities and three different confinement pressures. Cone tip resistance in the crushable material is practically insensitive to initial density, as had been observed in previous physical experiments. The same CPT series is repeated but now particle crushing is disabled. The ratios of cone tip resistance between the two types of simulation are in good agreement with previous experimental comparisons of hard and crushable soils. Microscale exploration of the models indicates that crushing disrupts the buttressing effect of chamber walls on the cone. DEM modelling of cone penetration tests in a double-porosity crushable granular material.

Wear and abrasivity: observations from EPB drives in mixed soft – rock sections

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 12:00:20 +0200

This paper summarizes the main observations related to geotechnical properties and tool changes that characterize the different tunnel drives in a database of 33 km of EPB tunnel records from the Barcelona area. The data have been examined in detail with regard to cutting tool replacement and performance of the mechanized excavation. The database includes tunnels in soft soils, in hard and medium rocks and in mixed soil‐rock conditions; tool changing records and geotechnical properties. Transverse and longitudinal geotechnical heterogeneity are accounted for systematically. Longitudinal heterogeneity is used to subdivide the drives in the database into homogeneous units. Transverse (within section) heterogeneity is described by a set of newly developed impact factors FI.

An approach to enhance efficiency of DEM modelling of soils with crushable grains

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 11:44:29 +0200

In this study oedometric compression tests of hydrocarbon coke, Fontainebleau sand and silica sand are simulated in three dimensions using breakable particles. The method adapts a rigorous breakage criterion for elasto-brittle spheres to represent failure of grains isolated between platens or within granular masses. The breakage criterion allows for the effect of particle bulk and contact properties to be treated separately. A discrete fragmentation multigenerational approach is applied as a spawning procedure. The number of particles quickly increases during the simulation, but is kept manageable by systematic fine exclusion and upscaling. Fine exclusion leads to mass losses between generations, but that loss is accounted for outside the mechanical model. Sensitivity analysis shows that it is enough to keep 53% of the crushed particle mass within the mechanical model to correctly reproduce experimental macroscopic behaviour. Practical upscaling rules are proposed for (a) contact stiffness, (b) breakage criteria and (c) grain size distribution, and validated simulating the same test, reducing by half the initial number of particles. The results are promising as both the mechanical and grading evolution are well captured with two orders of magnitude savings in computing efficiency.

Relative performance of two unsaturated soil models using different constitutive variables

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 10:47:29 +0200

Mechanical and water retention behaviour of unsaturated soils is investigated in the context of two well established coupled constitutive models, each of which is formulated in terms of a different set of stress state variables or constitutive variables. Incremental relationships describing the volume change and variation of the degree of saturation are derived for each model. These incremental relationships are used to simulate a set of experimental tests on compacted Speswhite kaolin previously reported in the literature. Six individual tests, involving isotropic compression and various forms of shearing, are analyzed in the context of the incremental forms developed, and the model predictions are then compared against experimental results. The results show that, although each constitutive model uses a different set of constitutive variables and a different scheme for coupling mechanical and water retention behaviour, the two sets of model predictions are similar and both sets provide a reasonable match to the experimental results, suggesting that both models are able to capture the relevant features of unsaturated soil behaviour, despite expressing the constitutive laws in different ways.

Shear strength of rock joints influenced by compacted infill

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 10:32:18 +0200

Discontinuities such as fault planes, joints and bedding planes in a rock mass may be filled with different types of fine-grained material that are either transported or accumulated as gouge due to weathering or joint shearing. Previous laboratory studies have mainly examined the role of saturated infill that exhibits the minimum shear strength. However, in practice, the infill materials are often partially saturated generating matric suction within the joint that can contribute to increased shear strength. To the authors' knowledge this is the first study to examine the influence of compacted (unsaturated) infill on the joint shear strength. A series of laboratory triaxial tests on idealised model joints and imprinted natural joint profiles was carried out, with constant water contents of the infill being maintained. From the laboratory results, it is observed that the peak shear strength of infilled joints increased with the decrease of degree of saturation from 85% to 35% for both idealised joints and replicated natural joints. Based on the laboratory observations an empirical model for describing the infilled joint shear strength was developed.

Multi-scale analysis of cone penetration test (CPT) in a virtual calibration chamber

María Jesús Samper — Thu, 30 Apr 2020 09:53:18 +0200

A virtual calibration chamber was developed using a three-dimensional (3D) discrete element method (DEM) to perform cone penetration tests (CPTs) on a discrete analogue of Ticino sand. The macroscale response of the DEM model was previously shown to be in good quantitative agreement with that of analogous physical models. In the current study the performance of the model at meso and microscale levels of resolution is examined. The microscale response is examined using particle displacements and contact force distributions. The mesoscale behaviour is examined using stress and strain fields obtained through appropriate averaging and interpolating procedures. Four CPTs are examined at the steady-state penetration stage. The effects of radial boundary conditions, initial stress state, initial average density, and particle rotational inertia are examined. The ability of the micro and mesoscale data to identify and explain the relevant mechanisms underlying the significant differences in the macroscale response of the models is discussed. Comparisons with similar phenomena observed in physical tests are also highlighted.

Interpretation of dam monitoring data combining visualisation tools and machine learning. Eberlaste Dam Case Study

Andre Conde — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:45:03 +0200

'''The installation of automatic data acquisition systems, together with the use of machine learning, allow obtaining useful information on the behaviour of dams. In this contribution, an example of application for a machine learning based predictive model is presented. Specifically, the level in a piezometer and its association with the reservoir level is studied for an embankment dam. The results show the model's ability to identify changes in dam response by taking full advantage of the available monitoring data. The flexibility of the algorithm allows different types of variables to be analysed without the need to determine a priori which are the most influential loads or how they affect the target value. The model has been implemented in a software tool that includes additional functionalities, specific for the treatment and exploration of dam monitoring data. It can be applied to different dam types and response variables.''' '''

Identification of dam behavior by means of machine learning classification models

Andre Conde — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:43:02 +0200

'''The improvements in monitoring devices result in databases of increasing size showing dam behaviour. Advanced tools are required to extract useful information from such large amounts of data. Machine learning is increasingly used for that purpose worldwide: data-based models are built to estimate the dam response in front of a given combination of loads. The results of the comparison between model predictions and actual measurements can be used for decision support in dam safety evaluations. However, most of the works to date consider each device separately. A different approach is used in this contribution: a set of displacement records are jointly considered to identify patterns using a classification model. First, potential anomaly scenarios are defined and the response of the dam for each of them is obtained with numerical models under a realistic load combination. Then, the resulting displacements are used to generate a machine learning classifier. This model is later used to predict the most probable class of dam behavior corresponding to a new set of records. The methodology is applied to a double-curvature arch dam, showing great potential for anomaly detection.

Sand production simulation coupling DEM with CFD

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:36:32 +0200

Sand production in oil wells is often predicted using continuum fluid-coupled models. However, a continuum approach cannot capture important features of the sanding problem, such as erosion and localised failure. This shortcoming of continuum-based analyses can be overcome using the particulate discrete element method (DEM). However, these models, apart from issues of computational cost, have the disadvantage of being difficult to calibrate. One way forward is to calibrate DEM models to capture the response observed in continuum models, where the material parameters can be selected with greater confidence. Adopting this philosophy here, a 3D numerical model based on DEM coupled with Computational Fluid Dynamics was built to simulate sand production around perforations. In the first instance, the basic DEM model (i.e. a dry case) is calibrated against a well-known poro-elastoplastic analytical solution by Risnes et al. (1982). Subsequently, a range of hydrostatic scenarios involving different levels of pore pressure and effective stress are considered. The numerical model shows an asymmetry of the eroded zone that is related to initial microscale inhomogeneity. The stress peak of the analytical solution at the elastic-plastic interface is smoothed because of that asymmetry. The presence of hydrostatic fluid decreases the plastic region and reduces the amount of sand produced. This is not due to changes in effective stress but rather by the particle-scale stabilizing effect of the fluid drag.

Combination of advanced numerical methods and machine learning for dam safety assessment

Andre Conde — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:36:03 +0200

The availability of machine learning techniques opens up possibilities in different fields of civil engineering. Their application in conjunction with numerical simulations overcomes the limitations in traditional approaches and pave the road for some new horizons. This communication presents several applications of such a hybrid tool in design and safety assessment of dams and hydraulic structures. They include the generation of behavior prediction models from monitoring data, the identification of behavior patterns with classification models, the analysis of the seismic response of gravity dams with heterogeneous concrete in a probabilistic framework, the investigation of the performance of arch dams, and the estimation of the discharge capacity of arched labyrinth spillways.

Homogenization in clay barriers and seals: two case studies

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:27:21 +0200

The paper presents two case studies that provide information on the process of homogenization of initially heterogeneous clay barriers and seals. The first case is the canister retrieval test performed in the Aspö Hard Rock Laboratory (Sweden). The heterogeneity arises from the use of a combination of blocks and pellets to construct the engineered barrier. The degree of homogenization achieved by the end of the tests is evaluated from data obtained during the dismantling of the test. To assist in the interpretation of the test, a fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) analysis has been carried out. The second case involves the shaft sealing test performed in the HADES underground research laboratory (URL) in Mol (Belgium). Here the seal is made up of a heterogeneous mixture of bentonite pellets and bentonite powders. In addition to the full scale test, the process of homogenization of the mixture has also been observed in the laboratory using X-ray tomography. Both field test and laboratory tests are successfully modelled by a coupled hydro-mechanical (HM) analysis using a double structure constitutive law. The paper concludes with some considerations on the capability of highly expansive materials to provide a significant degree of homogenization upon hydration.

AN INTERACTIVE TOOL FOR DATA ANALYSIS AND MACHINE-LEARNING MODEL FITTING WITH APPLICATION TO HYDRO-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS

Andre Conde — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:27:03 +0200

The advances in sensors and communication technologies open great possibilities in the management and maintenance of engineering systems. In general, the performance of monitoring devices has undergone relevant improvements in terms of both accuracy and reliability, which have resulted in more information available on the behaviour of the structure under consideration. However, the investments made in the modernization of the monitoring systems are not recovered unless complemented by applications capable of handling such large and diverse information. In this contribution, we present a software tool for importing, exploring, cleaning and analysing monitoring data. Also, it allows for fitting machine-learning behaviour models, as well as interpreting the response of the system to the actions or loads in operation. It was initially developed for dam safety assessment, but can be used -with minor changes- for other engineering systems. The methodology and the overall structure can be categorized in two main sections: (i) the monitoring data can be uploaded, cleaned, completed and analysed and (ii) the machine-learning model can be fitted to predict the variables of interest of the system. The same model can then be used for online detection of anomalies by comparing predictions with recorded behaviour. For example, this allows the identification of abnormal displacements in dams for a given load combination. The software can be equally run locally or in the cloud, with appropriate safe access. It has been written in the R language using the Shiny package for interactivity with the following functionalities: zooming and showing information for data exploration, selecting time periods to interpolate and choosing the training parameters to fit behaviour models.

Compacted soil behaviour: initial state, structure and constitutive modelling

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 17:17:48 +0200

The paper explores the behaviour of compacted soils throughout the (dry density–water content) compaction plane by means of a conceptual framework that incorporates microstructural information. The engineering properties of compacted soils are described by an initial state in terms of a yielding stress, soil suction and a microstructural state variable. Microstructure is defined by the ratio of microvoid volume to total void volume. The pattern of variation of the microstructural parameter within the compaction plane has been determined, for some compacted soils, by analysing mercury intrusion porosimetry data. The microstructure of wet and dry compaction conditions can then be quantified. To ensure consistency, the framework is cast in the form of a constitutive model defined in terms of an effective suction and a constitutive stress that incorporate the microstructural variable. The model is shown to be consistent with a number of experimental observations and, in particular, it explains the intrinsic collapse potential of compacted soils. It predicts, for a common initial suction, a higher collapse potential for dry of optimum conditions than for wet compaction. It also predicts in a natural manner the observed evolution of soil compressibility during drained or undrained loading. Model capabilities are illustrated by application to a testing programme on statically compacted samples of low-plasticity silty clay. The compression behaviour of samples compacted wet and dry of optimum and the variation of collapse strains with confining stress have been successfully reproduced by the model.

A chemo-mechanical constitutive model accounting for cation exchange in expansive clays

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 16:50:28 +0200

The paper presents a chemo-mechanical model for expansive clays that takes into account the effects of cation content and cation exchange. These factors play a key role in the mechanical behaviour of very active clays, particularly with regard to volumetric behaviour. The model is based on an existing double-structure formulation that distinguishes specifically between microstructure and macrostructure. Chemical effects are defined at the microstructural level, the seat of the basic physico-chemical phenomena affecting highly swelling clays. The microstructural model accounts for changes in both osmotic suction and in cation content. Microstructural strains are considered to be reversible; material irreversibility arises from the interaction between the two structural levels. The formulation is developed for general unsaturated conditions; saturation is considered as a limiting case. The model is successfully applied to the reproduction of experimental behaviour observed in oedometer tests on saturated bentonite subjected to chemo-mechanical loadings, and in hydration tests of unsaturated bentonite performed using different solute concentrations.

Analysis of hydro-mechanical processes in a ventilated tunnel in an argillaceous rock on the basis of different modelling approaches

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 16:39:34 +0200

In this paper, a modelling benchmark exercise from the DECOVALEX-2011 project is presented. The benchmark is based on the performance and results of a laboratory drying test and of the ventilation experiment (VE) carried out in the Mont Terri Underground Rock Laboratory (URL). Both tests involve Opalinus clay. The work aims at the identification, understanding and quantification of mechanisms taking place during the ventilation of a gallery in argillaceous host rocks on one hand and at investigating the capacity of different codes and individuals to reproduce these processes on the other hand. The 4-year in situ VE took place in a 1.3 m diameter unlined tunnel and included two resaturation–desaturation cycles. The test area was equipped with over one hundred sensors (including the global water mass balance of the system, relative humidity (RH), water content, liquid pressure, relative displacement and concentration of some chemical species) to monitor the rock behaviour during ventilation. The laboratory drying experiment, carried out before the VE, was designed to mimic the in situ conditions. The work was organized in a progressive manner in terms of complexity of the computations to be performed, geared towards the full hydro-mechano-chemical (HMC) understanding of the VE, the final objective. The main results from the modelling work reported herein are that the response of the host rock to ventilation in argillaceous rocks is mainly governed by hydraulic processes (advective Darcy flow and non-advective vapour diffusion) and that the hydro-mechanical (TM) back coupling is weak. A ventilation experiment may thus be regarded as a large scale-long time pump test and it is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of the rock mass.

Steady state of solid-grain interfaces during simulated CPT

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 16:21:37 +0200

It has recently been shown (Arroyo et al. [1]) that 3D DEM models are able to reproduce with reasonable accuracy the macroscopic response of CPT performed in calibration chambers filled with sand. However, the cost of each simulation is an important factor. Hence, to achieve manageable simulation times the discrete material representing the sand was scaled up to sizes that were more typical of gravel than sand. A side effect of the scaled-up discrete material size employed in the model was an increased fluctuation of the macro-response that can be filtered away to observe a macroscopic steady-state cone resistance. That observation is the starting point of this communication, where a series of simulations in which the size ratio between penetrometer and particles is varied are systematically analyzed. A micromechanical analysis of the penetrometer-particle interaction is performed. These curves reveal that a steady state is arrived also at the particle-cone contact level. The properties of this dynamic interface are independent of the initial density of the granular material.

Abrasividad y su influencia en el rendimiento de una excavación mecanizada

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 15:58:11 +0200

El empleo de tuneladoras TBM (Tunnel Boring Machine) es cada vez más frecuente aunque su optimización requiere la evaluación precisa de varios riesgos geotécnicos entre ellos, el efecto de la abrasividad del suelo en el coste y planificación de un proyecto dado. El desgaste de las herramientas es más difícil de calcular que el resto de parámetros de la maquinaria, debido a la complejidad de la interacción entre herramienta de corte y terreno. En este trabajo se usan datos de un caso real de túnel en terrenos mixtos suelo-roca para examinar el resultado de varias metodologías de predicción de la penetración de TBM. También se examinan algunas predicciones de desgaste y se describe y aplica un nuevo método para la evaluación de la abrasividad de geomateriales que puede aplicarse tanto a materiales sueltos como a rocas.

Thermal conductivity of argillaceous rocks: determination methodology using in situ heating tests

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 15:28:29 +0200

This study focuses on the characterisation of thermal conductivity for three potential host rocks for radioactive waste disposal. First, the heat conduction process is reviewed on the basis of an analytical solution and key aspects related to anisotropic conduction are discussed. Then the existing information on the three rocks is summarised and a broad uncertainty range of thermal conductivity is estimated based on the mineralogical composition. Procedures to backanalyse the thermal conductivity on the basis of in situ heating tests are assessed and a methodology is put forward. Finally, this methodology is used to estimate the impact of experimental uncertainties and applied to the four in situ heating tests. In the three potential host rocks, a clear influence of the bedding planes was identified and anisotropic heat conduction was shown to be necessary to interpret the observed temperature field. Experimental uncertainties were also shown to induce a larger uncertainty on the anisotropy ratio than on the equivalent thermal conductivity defined as the geometric mean of the thermal conductivity in the three principal directions.

Thermal-hydraulic-mechanical (THM) behaviour of a large-scale in situ heating experiment during cooling and dismantling

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 14:29:10 +0200

A geological disposal facility for high-level radioactive waste (HLW) encompasses both natural (host rock) and (generally clay-based) engineered barriers. Many processes can influence, either positively or negatively, the effectiveness of the safety functions of isolation and retardation. This paper focuses on the analysis of a large-scale heating test when subjected to cooling and subsequent partial dismantling. The experiment reproduces the conditions of an HLW repository at full scale under realistic conditions. Key thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical (THM) variables, such as temperature, relative humidity, stresses, and fluid pressures, were measured in the clay barrier and surrounding rock. The experimental observations recorded during the cooling down and clay barrier excavation are analyzed in light of a fully coupled THM finite element formulation. This analysis has provided the opportunity to explore the behaviour of the clay and natural barriers under conditions very relevant for the repository performance but not analyzed previously. Overall, the model predictions are quite satisfactory when compared against experimental observations. Furthermore, model predictions for a period of 20 years, including the transient phase induced by the partial dismantling, are also presented. This additional analysis has allowed a better understanding of the effect of thermal gradient on long-term clay hydration.

Simulation of cement-improved clay structures with a bonded elasto-plastic model: A practical approach

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 14:21:54 +0200

Engineering practice has usually dealt with the treated soil bodies using simplistic constitutive models (e.g. elastic perfectly-plastic Mohr–Coulomb). In this paper, a more refined bonded elasto-plastic model is here applied, with emphasis on the ease of calibration. Empirical studies have identified the ratio of cement content to the cured mixture void ratio as a controlling variable for mechanical response. This observation is elaborated upon to show that measuring porosity and unconfined compressive strength is enough to initialize the state variables of a bonded elasto-plastic model. Data from cement-improved Bangkok clay is employed to illustrate and validate the calibration procedure proposed. The structure-scale consequences of the constitutive model choice for the soil–cement are explored through the parametric analysis of an idealized excavation problem. A treated soil–cement slab is characterized by increasing cement contents in the clay–cement mixture. Two sets of parametric analysis are run characterizing the clay–cement either with a linear elastic-perfectly plastic model or with the bonded elasto-plastic model. The same values of unconfined compressions strength (UCS) are specified for the two models to make comparisons meaningful. Results from both series of analysis are compared highlighting the differences in predicted behaviour of the retaining wall and the excavation stability.

Analysis of tunnel excavation in London Clay incorporating soil structure

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 14:14:03 +0200

Recent studies on London Clay have identified a number of different units in the geological profile, and have highlighted the role of soil structure in mechanical behaviour. In fact, structure is the dominant factor determining the differences in the mechanical response of different units. In the paper, numerical analyses simulating the undrained excavation of a tunnel in St James's Park are presented. London Clay behaviour is characterised by a kinematic-hardening structured soil model incorporating structure and stiffness degradation. The parameters and initial conditions are based on a careful calibration that takes into account the presence of different units within the London Clay formation and the different degrees of soil structure. The analyses performed result in a very satisfactory reproduction of the magnitude and patterns of short-term surface and subsurface displacements, as well as pore pressures. The paper concludes with a discussion of the results in the context of other analyses performed previously, and puts forward some considerations concerning design issues.

Interpretation of unsaturated soil behaviour in the stress-saturation space. II: Constitutive relationships and validations

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 13:47:32 +0200

Based on the equations for volume change and saturation variation proposed in the companion paper [37], an alternative constitutive framework is presented for interpreting coupled hydro-mechanical behaviour for unsaturated soils. In this new framework, all constitutive laws are built in the space of stress vs. degree of saturation. Suction is not involved explicitly in the constitutive model for unsaturated soils. The loading-collapse yield surface is derived based on the proposed volume change equation in the plane of the effective degree of saturation and the Bishop effective stress. The proposed volume change equation and the corresponding yield surface are generalised to three-dimensional stress states by incorporating with the Modified Cam-clay model, following the same procedure introduced in the Sheng–Fredlund–Gens (SFG) model. The basic properties and performance of the proposed constitutive model are then illustrated through numerical examples with various drying/wetting/loading paths. Finally, the proposed model is validated against a variety of experimental data including drained and undrained tests, isotropic and triaxial tests and reconstituted and compacted soils.

Interpretation of unsaturated soil behaviour in the stress. Saturation space, I: volume change and water retention behaviour

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 13:26:58 +0200

Unsaturated soil behaviour, such as volume change, shear strength and yield stress, is usually interpreted and modelled in terms of stress and suction. This approach is consistent with laboratory tests where suction is a controllable variable. However, it also suffers some limitations. This paper (Parts I and II) presents an alternative approach for interpreting unsaturated soil behaviour, which is built in the space of stress versus degree of saturation. In Part I, a new volume change equation is proposed in terms of stress and degree of saturation, to give a better explanation to the non-linear change of soil compressibility under constant suctions. The soil compression index is assumed to be a function of the effective degree of saturation and is interpolated from the known compressibility at the fully saturated state and that at a dry state. An alternative approach to simulate hydraulic hysteresis and hydro-mechanical interaction is then introduced, which enables the calculation of the effective degree of saturation under complex stress and suction paths. The proposed volume change equation and the approach to describe saturation variation, which are two fundamental aspects to establish constitutive laws for unsaturated soils, are validated against a variety of experimental data in literature.

THM analysis of a large-scale heating test incorporating material fabric changes

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 13:15:42 +0200

Engineered barriers are basic elements in the design of repositories for the isolation of high‐level radioactive waste. This paper presents the thermo‐hydro‐mechanical (THM) analysis of a clay barrier subjected to heating and hydration. The study focuses on an ongoing large‐scale heating test, at almost full scale, which is being carried out at the CIEMAT laboratory under well‐controlled boundary conditions. The test is intensely instrumented and it has provided the opportunity to study in detail the evolution of the main THM variables over a long period of time. Comprehensive laboratory tests carried out in the context of the FEBEX and NF‐PRO projects have allowed the identification of the model parameters to describe the THM behaviour of the compacted expansive clay. A conventional THM approach that assumes the swelling clay as a single porosity medium has been initially adopted to analyse the evolution of the test. The model was able to predict correctly the global THM behaviour of the clay barrier in the short term (i.e. for times shorter than three years), but some model limitations were detected concerning the prediction of the long‐term hydration rate. An additional analysis of the test has been carried out using a double structure model to describe the actual behaviour of expansive clays. The double structure model explicitly considers the two dominant pore levels that actually exist in the FEBEX bentonite and it is able to account for the evolution of the material fabric. The simulation of the experiment using this enhanced model provides a more satisfactory reproduction of the long‐term experimental results. It also contributes to a better understanding of the observed test behaviour and it provides a physically based explanation for the very slow hydration of the barrier.

Hydromechanical behaviour of a heterogeneous compacted soil: experimental observations and modelling

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 12:32:33 +0200

The paper describes a theoretical and experimental study of the coupled hydromechanical behaviour of a compacted mixture of bentonite powder and bentonite pellets intended as sealing material in underground repositories for nuclear waste. One of the main advantages of the use of powder/pellets mixtures is the reduction of the compaction effort required to achieve the value of average dry density necessary to attain the required swelling potential. However, the heterogeneous fabric of the material requires special approaches in order to describe adequately its behaviour during hydration. A double porosity formulation is presented to account for the presence of two distinct structural levels in the material. Hydraulic equilibrium between the two porosities is not assumed; instead a water exchange term between them is postulated. The formulation is applied to the modelling of a number of one-dimensional swelling pressure tests performed in the CEA (Commisariat à l'Énergie Atomique, France) and CIEMAT (Spain) laboratories. A very satisfactory quantitative description of the experimental observations is obtained that includes a number of complex behaviour features such as size effects and non-monotonic development of swelling pressures. Some microfabric observations using X-ray tomography and mercury intrusion porosimetry lend support to the conceptual approach adopted. The formulation is then applied to the analysis of a long-term large-scale sealing test performed at the Hades underground facility in Belgium, using the same set of hydraulic and mechanical parameters employed in the modelling of the laboratory tests. Although the field observations exhibit a much higher degree of scatter, the basic behaviour of the field sealing test is satisfactorily simulated. A formulation that incorporates basic features of the microfabric of the mixture is thus able to span successfully over a large range of space and time scales.

Thermo-hydro-mechanical model of the Canister Retrieval Test

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 12:22:41 +0200

The paper presents a 2-D axisymmetric numerical simulation of the Canister Retrieval Test (CRT). The main objectives of this analysis are the study of the canister–buffer and buffer–host rock interfaces; and the evaluation of the mathematical models used to predict the THM behaviour of the buffer and interface. The THM simulation was performed using the finite element program Code-Bright. The constitutive law adopted to represent the mechanical behaviour of bentonite and pellets is the Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) with a non-linear elastic component accounting for swelling. A joint element with a non-linear elastic mechanical law was implemented in the code for the simulation of the opening–closure of the interface canister–buffer. The formulation of this element also incorporates appropriate thermal and hydraulic laws. The evolution of temperatures, relative humidities and stresses recorded during the test were compared with the simulation results. Comparing the results measured in situ with the results of numerical analysis shows that the formulation used is able to reproduce satisfactorily the phenomena involved in the test as well as their interactions. In addition, the final dry density and degree of saturation measured in samples of bentonite and pellets extracted during the test dismantling were also in agreement with the calculated values.

Cone penetration tests in a virtual calibration chamber

María Jesús Samper — Wed, 29 Apr 2020 12:10:01 +0200

A virtual calibration chamber was built using a threedimensional model based on the discrete-element method. The chamber was then filled with a scaled granular equivalent of Ticino sand, the material properties of which were selected by curve-fitting triaxial tests. Cone penetration tests were then performed under different initial densities and isotropic stresses. Penetration resistance in the virtual calibration chamber was affected by the same cone/chamber size effect that affects physical calibration chambers and was corrected accordingly. The corrected cone resistance obtained from the virtual calibration chamber cone penetration tests shows good quantitative agreement with correlations that summarise previous physical results.