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This article presents results from various studies conducted by the authors, in collaboration with other researchers, aimed at measuring the external effects generated by the existence of an intergenerational transfer system, such as the pension system, and the welfare state as a whole. The primary reason for the presence of this externality is that the pension system, financed on a pay-as-you-go (PAYG) basis through social contributions, socializes the intergenerational contract and thus provides insurance against not having children. This characteristic extends to other welfare state programs, which implicitly are also financed via PAYG. As a result, the children of some citizens, raised largely with private resources, generate a positive externality for those who do not have children. That is, the taxes paid by these children once they reach adulthood support the welfare state programs for all people, regardless of whether they had children or not. This external effect has been analyzed in the theoretical literature on intergenerational transfers, primarily within the framework of dynamic macroeconomic models of overlapping generations, in which individuals, in addition to making savings decisions, also make the decision to have children.

The possibility of measuring the magnitude of the externality generated by being a parent for society as a whole ultimately depends on the availability of data. In this regard, National Transfer Accounts (NTA) represent an innovative source of information by offering a comprehensive estimate of public and private intergenerational transfers that take place at a given point in time. While initially these estimates were only broken down by age, they already revealed the strong bias of welfare state policies in favour of the elderly, a key element when considering the external effects. In this paper, we describe this method and the extensions developed to measure these external effects, showing an illustration for Spain compared with three other countries. Specifically, the results of a dynamic microsimulation model incorporating NTA estimates disaggregated by sex, family type, and educational level are presented. This allows for the simulation of transfers received throughout the life cycle via the family and the welfare state, providing a quantification of the magnitude of the externality generated by having children, in the presence of a pay-as-you-go welfare state. The results indicate that parents, regardless of their educational level, make more family transfers. Specifically, they receive about half the amount of net family transfers over their lifetime compared to those who have not had children. The welfare state does not compensate for these differences with public transfers. Therefore, the externality is considerable.

These results are crucial for the debate on pension system reform, suggesting that such reform should be considered within the broader framework of welfare state programs, that is, the set of intergenerational public transfers going forward (aimed at children) and backward (targeted at the elderly). The recent measures adopted in the Spanish pension system, focused on increasing contributions and avoiding pension adjustments, will contribute to shifting the burden of adjustment onto the generations active during the retirement of the baby boomers, further increasing the current bias of the welfare state toward the elderly. As a result, the children of the baby boomers will face the challenge of continuing to finance the entitlements acquired by their parents within the pay-as-you-go pension system, while also maintaining fertility and the costs of policies aimed at children (education and family policies), which are key to ensuring equity and also to paying for future pension transfers.

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The relevance of the study is determined by the need to analyze the consequences of the concentration of livestock farms, not only from an economic point of view, but also from an environmental one. The objective of the research is to develop ways for sustainable development of animal husbandry in Russia, taking into account the possibilities of continuous growth in production and export of meat and milk, balanced by current environmental problems (growth of farm waste) and the possibilities of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The subject of the research is the environmental indicators characterizing the externalities arising from the production of livestock products (meat, milk, eggs). The work uses traditional scientific methods - descriptive, analytical, statistical and methods of economic and mathematical modeling. The sources of information were Russian and foreign scientific publications, official publications of regulatory documents and statistical data of state authorities of Russia, as well as foreign databases on agricultural statistics. The reported results conclude that the concentration of livestock production facilities leads to different environmental consequences. Among the leading regions specializing in livestock products, the highest concentration is in the Central Black Earth Region: the Belgorod and Kursk regions account for almost 30% of all agricultural waste in Russia. The greenhouse gas emissions were estimated using the GLOBIOM partial equilibrium model. The calculation results showed that Belgorod region has one of the lowest carbon footprint indicators in livestock production: 8 tons of СО2 equiv. per one ton of protein, which is associated with the lowcarbon development of poultry farming. In other regions, which specialize in dairy and beef cattle breeding, the carbon footprint is at least twice as high, for example, in the Krasnodarsky krai; however, the indicators of waste output per unit of production, on the contrary, are lower there. Thus, the scientific novelty of the research lies in the development of scientific and analytical tools for the correct identification of local, regional and global environmental risks when assessing the efficiency of meat, milk and eggs production. So, in our study, local risks were assessed through the concentration of manure (nitrogen) elements per unit of agricultural land and cultivated area at the level of municipalities. Regional risks were assessed through the indicator of waste from agricultural products. And global risks were assessed through an indicator of greenhouse gas emissions, which also allowed us to estimate the so-called cumulative carbon footprint of each region per unit of animal protein produced. Based on the results of the study, recommendations were developed to improve statistical reporting on production waste in the agricultural sector; to differentially collect and publish data on various types of feeding of farm animals in different categories of farms, which will subsequently help to better calculate animal diets and their potential waste and greenhouse gas emissions, in order to identify the most "wasteful” and “sustainable” animal husbandry practices.

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The relevance of the study is determined by the need to analyze the consequences of monocultures in crop production in the regions of Russia, not only from an economic point of view, but also from an environmental one. The objective of the study is to develop ways for the sustainable development of agriculture in Russia, taking into account the possibilities for the development of diversification and the possibility of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The subject of the presented research is the production and environmental indicators of crop production in the regions of Russia. In the course of the work, traditional scientific methods were used - descriptive, analytical, statistical and methods of economic and mathematical modeling. The sources of information were Russian and foreign scientific publications, official publications of regulatory and legal documents and statistical data of Russian state authorities, as well as foreign databases on agricultural statistics. The results of the study conclude that in the period 2011-2019, the increase in crop production took place mainly in the Central Black Earth and South-Western regions of the country, where the plowing of abandoned lands was accompanied by an increase in crop yields (intensification), which led to a relatively low carbon track per unit of output. On the contrary, in the regions of the Far East, where the plowing of the fallow has led to an increase in soybean crops (usually low-yielding), this has affected a higher carbon footprint, which cannot be considered a sustainable characteristic for further development. Thus, the scientific novelty of the study lies in the development of scientific and analytical tools for the correct identification of regional and global environmental risks in assessing the efficiency of crop production in the regions of Russia. Thus, in our study, regional risks were assessed through the concentration of crops in the region or through the diversification index (variety of cultivated crops). Global risks were assessed through the indicator of greenhouse gas emissions, which also allowed us to estimate the so-called cumulative "carbon footprint" of each region in terms of grain unit of crop production. As a result of the study, policy recommendations were developed to improve statistical reporting on the agricultural sector. It is also recommended to promote knowledge about new and old practices for introducing diversification, incl. and the classic method of growing legumes in crops, which is not being successfully implemented by all regions so far.